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This study examined masculinity and femininity in Japanese culture. Two hundred sixty-five college students (male = 104; female = 161) took the Japanese version of the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) with pertinent demographic questions. Subjects were all Japanese and no other races were included. The results showed no significant difference between Japanese male college students and Japanese female college students on both the Masculinity and Femininity scale of the BSRI. It was also found that both male and female Japanese college students scored higher on the Femininity scale than on the Masculinity scale of the BSRI. A confirmatory factor analysis also supported that Bem's gender role model did not fit the data collected in Japan. The limitations and implications of the study are also discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Culture defines gender roles. In all cultures, biological sex is not the only factor to define being male or being female. Societal values and expectations perpetuate gender role stereotypes in a culture, and mandate males to be "masculine" and females to be "feminine." Stereotypes of gender roles created by a culture govern our way of life throughout our existence. These stereotypes vary among different cultures as well as among different ethnic groups (Franklin, 1984; Landrine, 1985; Harris, 1994).
Cross-cultural studies on gender roles and gender role ideology have been conducted to investigate similarities and differences among the countries. Williams and Best (1990; 1994) discussed the cross-cultural variations of gender roles and gender stereotypes. Although Berry, Poortinga, Segall, and Dasen (1992) cautioned against generalization in gender stereotypes across cultures, it is plausible to assume the universality of gender stereotypes across cultures due to the different psychological characteristics of males and females derived from the gender division of labor in patriarchal societies. Williams and Best (1990) also found that the variance of gender stereotypes between males and females was smaller in highly developed countries and that it was larger among the cultures where there was a great gap between the educational achievement of men and women.
Other studies have also attempted to examine gender roles in different countries by using measures developed in the English language. Some demonstrated that gender roles proved to be universal (Basow, 1984; Spence & Helmerich, 1978; Pitariu, 1981; Torki, 1988; Nishiyama, 1975) and others...