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Human beings are more frightened about the uncertainty of what may happen after death than about death itself. Many religions, in an attempt to allay the fear of this uncertainty, advocate the views on afterlife and provide their followers a way to overcome this uncertainty and to achieve a better life after death. In this regard, Buddhism has developed the concept of karma and rebirth and the practice of merit transfer for the dead. Both in the Theraväda and the Mahäyäna traditions, the monks are trained to perform ritual services and to transfer the resultant merit to the dead; lay Buddhists are instructed to make material donations or other contributions to institutional Buddhism and transfer merit to their dead relatives. The merit transfer, in connection with the concept of afterlife, has become an important part of Chinese religious practice to help Chinese people fulfil their duty of filial piety; it has thus deeply penetrated into Chinese society and become an integral part of Chinese culture. In the present work, I will first briefly discuss the concept ofPetalok (the world of the departed) and merit transfer in Theraväda Buddhism. Then, focusing on Mahäyäna doctrine and tradition, I will elaborate on the concept of merit transfer for the departed in the intermediate state. Subsequently, I will illustrate how the idea and practice of both merit transfer and the afterlife constitute a major part of Buddhist activities in China.
1. ISSUES ON THE INTERMEDIATE STATE AND MERIT TRANSFER IN THERAVADA BUDDHISM
The intermediate state (Antaräbhava) is a fascinating invention of sectarian Buddhism that is closely connected with the doctrines of karma and rebirth. According to this theory, living beings, after their lives end, experience a transitional state before they can be reborn into their next life. Since these living beings in the intermediate state are purely the creation of their karma - devoid of any productive power to do anything either good or bad - it is difficult for them to change their karmic destiny and to find a better rebirth. Therefore, their future destiny largely depends on merit they may receive from their living relatives. However, not all Buddhist schools endorsed the theory of the intermediate state, and the Abhidharma-mahävibhäsä...