A Method for the Simultaneous Cleansing of H2S and SO2

Abstract

A method for the simultaneous electrochemical purification of hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide from sea water or industrial wastes is proposed. Fundamentally the method is based on the electrochemical affinity of the pair H2S and SO2. The reactions (oxidation of H2S and reduction of SO2) proceed on a proper catalyst in a flow reactor, without an external power by electrochemical means. The partial curves of oxidation of H2S and reduction of SO2 have been studied electrochemically on different catalysts. Following the additive principle the rate of the process has been found by intersection of the curves. The overall process rate has been studied in a flow type reactor. Similar values of the process rate have been found and these prove the electrochemical mechanism of the reactions. As a result the electrochemical method at adequate conditions is developed. The process is able to completely convert the initial reagents (concentrations [subscript]C[subscript]H2[/subscript] S, S[subscript]O2[/subscript] [/subscript] =0), which is difficult given the chemical kinetics.

[ProQuest: [...] denotes non US-ASCII text; see PDF]

Dzhamal R. Uzun 1 and Elena Razkazova-Velkova 2 and Venko Beschkov 2 and Konstantin Petrov 1

Academic Editor:Abel C. Chialvo

1, Institute of Electrochemistry and Energy Systems "Acad. Evgeni Budevski", Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Street, Building 10, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
2, Institute of Chemical Engineering, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Street, Building 103, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria

Received 4 September 2015; Revised 19 November 2015; Accepted 13 December 2015

This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

1. Introduction

A number of past methods for the removal of sulfur-containing compounds from gas and water streams have been investigated by different researchers. These methods generally separate the sulfur compounds from the gas stream by an absorption stage. The so-called Claus process is the most widely utilized [1] and follows the general reaction: [figure omitted; refer to PDF] The Claus process proceeds at temperatures above 1300°C; however, by utilizing different catalysts, this can be reduced to 250-850°C [2-5]. The purification of SO₂ is currently a standalone process. There are different methods for extraction of sulfur dioxide, like neutralization methods, conversion of SO₂ into CaSO₄ [6], and liquefaction of SO₂ by adsorption in sulfate solution [7]. All these methods are based on the oxidation of SO₂ . Previous research by Petrov on the electrochemical oxidation reduction processes for SO₂ and H₂ S cleansing by their oxidation with oxygen contained in the air labeled ELCOX as innovative process for SO₂ cleansing in waste gases [8].

The present work is aimed at the opportunity of simultaneously cleansing the hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide from industrial wastes and natural (Black Sea) H₂ S containing waters. It is well known that Black Sea deep waters contain an enormous amount of hydrogen sulfide (as hydrosulfides and sulfide ions) estimated as 4600 Tg, that is, 4.6 billion tons [9]. There are efforts to attack the problem by various methods: low temperature adsorption of hydrogen sulfide from sea waters followed by thermal decomposition [10, 11], electrolysis leading to hydrogen and sulfur production [12], or burning the hydrogen sulfide itself in electric power stations, as proposed by [13]. All these methods encounter the problem of low H₂ S concentrations ( [figure omitted; refer to PDF] 8-10 mg·L^-1 ) which do not allow for the application of feasible technologies [14].

In this work we review the simultaneous reduction of SO₂ and oxidation of hydrogen sulfide. Various kinds of electrode materials were utilized in the past for the reduction of SO₂ , namely, mercury, gold, platinum, bismuth, copper, iron phthalocyanine on graphite, and uranium iron alloys. Previous studies do not fully explain the electrochemical process in the reduction of sulfur dioxide [15]. Various electrochemical methods to convert hydrogen sulfide to its elements, at different concentrations, have been studied [16]. Different catalysts for the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide were used previously like ferric, cobalt, graphite, platinum, manganese cations, cobalt and carbon compounds, and perovskites or cobalt phthalocyanine [17-19]. The anodic process of sulfide oxidation can be carried out leading to different final products (elemental sulfur, polysulfides, or sulfates), depending on the reaction conditions: temperature, concentrations, catalysts, and so forth.

The aim of the proposed method is to simultaneously purify both reagents (SO₂ and H₂ S) at room temperatures. Fundamentally the method is based on the electrochemical affinities of both compounds. The thermodynamic potentials of the pair H₂ S and SO₂ for oxidation and reduction are [figure omitted; refer to PDF] Overall reaction is [figure omitted; refer to PDF] From the theory for concurrent redox (corrosion) reactions it follows that these electrochemical reactions can occur due to the potential difference of [figure omitted; refer to PDF] V as indicated for reactions (1) and (2) on dispersed microgalvanic elements [20, 21]. Based on this the reactions may proceed on the right catalyst in a flow reactor, without an external power source by electrochemical means. The reaction rate may be determined by studying the partial electrochemical reactions of H₂ S oxidation and SO₂ reduction, in accordance with the so-called additive principle [20-22].

An advantage of these electrochemical reactions is that they are able to completely convert the initial reagents (concentrations [figure omitted; refer to PDF] ) [23], which is difficult given the chemical kinetics [24]. An application has been filed for a patent entitled "the electrochemical method for separation of sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide from fluids" [25].

The electrochemical realization of the process is possible due to the launching of novel microgalvanic cells. To illustrate the main idea a physical model of the process with a porous catalytic electrode is schematically shown in Figure 1. The model is similar to our previously published work [26]. The structure of the catalytic mass is composed of teflonized carbon black/charcoal with a deposited catalyst [figure omitted; refer to PDF] . Teflon is needed as a binding and hydrophobic agent because some of the reagents are in a gaseous form (e.g., 14% of H₂ S in Black Sea waters exist as diluted gas). The catalytic particles are in direct electronic contact through a teflonized carbon network [figure omitted; refer to PDF] . Ion contact is achieved through the solution (electrolyte)- [figure omitted; refer to PDF] . These conditions are sufficient for the realization of a galvanic element between the pair SO₂ -H₂ S. Depending on the pH of electrolyte the final products can be sulfur, polysulfides, or sulfates.

Figure 1: The physical model of a pore of a microgalvanic element with teflonized charcoal/carbon black and a catalytic mass for the reduction reaction of SO₂ with the oxidation of H₂ S in the electrolyte containing H₂ SO₃ + NaCl + NaOH + Na₂ S·9H₂ O.

[figure omitted; refer to PDF]

2. Materials and Methods

Sodium sulfide (Na₂ S·9H₂ O, Sigma-Aldrich 98.0%), Sodium sulfite (Na₂ SO₃ , Sigma-Aldrich), and Sodium Chloride (NaCl, Sigma-Aldrich) were for realizing of electrolyte. Deionized water was used. The Vulcan XC-72 carbon black (particle size ~50 nm) and acetylene blacks were from Cabot Corporation. The CoPc (cobalt phthalocyanine) was prepared by pyrolysis [18].

The total amount of sulfide and sulfite ions was determined iodometrically with starch as the indicator [27]. Sulfides were separately determined photometrically with N,N-dimethyl-n-phenylenediamine in the presence of Fe(III) and the formation of methylene blue [28-30]. This method allows for a doubled increase in the sensitivity of determination. The presence of thiosulfates, sulfites, and sulfates was also qualitatively checked. Thiosulfates form an unstable purple complex with Fe(III). The opalescence of the solution after the addition of barium cations shows the presence of sulfite and sulfate. The dissolution of the deposit in concentrated hydrochloric acid proves the presence of a sulfite, whereas the barium sulfate remains nondissolved [31].

We utilized a three-electrode cell to complete the electrochemical tests. For SO₂ reduction we used sulphurous acid H₂ SO₃ (10 g·L^-1 ). The H₂ S concentration in the electrolyte has been varied in the range 100-20 000 mg·L^-1 introduced as NaHS. This range has been selected having in mind that the electrochemical process is very slow (practically does not occur) at lower concentrations, especially at the naturally encountered concentration of about 8 mg·L^-1 [9], and higher concentrations were studied in previous investigations [14]. A supporting electrolyte of 18 g·L^-1 NaCl (similar to the concentration in Black Sea waters) is added to the electrolyte, as well as 1 M NaOH in some cases.

The cell volume is 150 mL. The electrolyte was stirred continuously with a magnetic stirrer. A Solartron 1286 Electrochemical Interface is used for the electrochemical measurements. A reference hydrogen electrode by "Gaskatel Gmbh", Germany, is applied. The counter electrode is Pt-foil. A minimum of four measurements were made for each result to achieve better reproducibility. Arithmetic averages are presented in the graphs.

An overall reaction rate for the simultaneous oxidation of hydrogen sulfide and reduction of sulfur dioxide without external power is studied in a flow type chemical reactor. The catalyst is placed in the reactor.

All the electrodes studied are of the immersed type and have a geometrical area of 1 cm² or 10 cm² . The electrodes are prepared from a mixture of the catalysts and teflonized carbon black (Vulcan XC-72 + 35% Teflon)-TV35-as a binder. The mixture is pressed onto both sides of a stainless steel current collector at [figure omitted; refer to PDF] and [figure omitted; refer to PDF] atm.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Electrode Properties and Optimization

The immersed type electrodes for the oxidation of H₂ S and reduction of SO₂ were previously optimized with respect to the catalyst used, the electrode thickness, and the mass ratio between catalysts and binder by varying one parameter at a time and keeping the others constant [31, 32]. Different catalysts have been studied: (DG + 20% CoPc) + 35% teflonized Vulcan XC-72 (DGCPV); (DG + 20% CoPc) + 35% teflonized Acetylene Black (DCPAB); La_1.3 Sr_0.7 NiO₄ + 35% teflonized Vulcan XC-72 (LSNV); Bulk Graphite; (DG + 20% CoPc) + 35% teflonized Vulcan XC-72 + 6% Pt., [31]. (DG + 20% CoPc) is active carbon type DG on which cobalt phthalocyanine is deposited [18].

The electrochemical characteristics of the best optimized electrodes for H₂ S oxidation ((a) DG + 20% CoPc compare 35% teflonized Vulcan XC-72,DGCPV, ratio 30 : 70; the quantity is 60 mg/cm² ; (b) La_1.3 Sr_0.7 NiO₄ + 35% teflonized Vulcan XC-72, LSNV) are shown in Figure 2. It is seen that both electrodes provide fairly similar electrochemical behaviour.

Figure 2: Working electrode potential versus current density for the optimized electrodes: [...] (a) DGCPV; [...] (b) LSNV. Electrolyte-1 g·L^-1 sulfide ions; 18 g·L^-1 NaCl; 1 M NaOH; [figure omitted; refer to PDF] .

[figure omitted; refer to PDF]

The polarization curves of sulfur dioxide reduction are shown in Figure 3. It can be seen that the substrate used (a) does not have a catalytic effect. The good initial results with electrodes containing DG + 20% CoPc + 6% Pt (d) have not been confirmed by long-term tests due to platinum poisoning. The curves (b) and (c), respectively, DG + 20% CoPc and Perovskite are similar.

Figure 3: The polarization curves of sulfur dioxide reduction in an aqueous electrolyte: 10 g·L^-1 H₂ SO₃ ; 1 M NaOH; 18 g·L^-1 NaCl; (a) stainless steel; (b) TV35 and DG + 20% CoPc; (c) LSNV; (d) TV35 and DG + 20% CoPc + 6% Pt; [figure omitted; refer to PDF] = 25°C.

[figure omitted; refer to PDF]

The influence of the electrolyte (with or without NaOH and NaCl) on SO₂ reduction is shown in Figure 4. The figure shows that the absence of NaCl (curve (b)) leads to a conductivity reduction, while NaOH absence leads to a decrease in pH and change in process kinetics, yielding sulfur.

Figure 4: Polarization curves for electrodes from DG + 20% CoPc, with different electrolytes: (a) 10 g·L^-1 H₂ SO₃ + 18 g·L^-1 NaCl; (b) 10 g·L^-1 H₂ SO₃ + 1 M NaOH; (c) 10 g·L^-1 H₂ SO₃ + 18 g·L^-1 NaCl + 1 M NaOH; [figure omitted; refer to PDF] = 25°C.

[figure omitted; refer to PDF]

3.2. Electrochemical Mechanism

The electrochemical mechanism was studied by juxtaposition of the partial curves of oxidation of hydrogen sulfide (Figure 2(a)) and the reduction of SO₂ (Figure 3(b)) as presented in Figure 5. From the intersection of the curves we can determine the mixed potential and current density, which are [figure omitted; refer to PDF] mV and [figure omitted; refer to PDF] mA/cm² . The overall reaction rate can be estimated using Faraday's equation: [figure omitted; refer to PDF] The agreement between the mixed potential (in a solution containing hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide [figure omitted; refer to PDF] mV and the potential calculated from the intersection of the partial curves [figure omitted; refer to PDF] mV) is very good, since the deviations for porous electrodes of around [figure omitted; refer to PDF] mV are acceptable [33]. This agreement is an indication of the electrochemical mechanism of the process. In order to indubitably prove the electrochemical mechanism we have to measure the overall reaction rate.

Figure 5: Polarization curves for the oxidation of H₂ S from Figure 2(a) and the reduction of SO₂ from Figure 3(b).

[figure omitted; refer to PDF]

3.3. Estimation of the Overall Reaction Rate in a Flow Type Reactor

The overall reaction rate has been estimated in a flow type reactor with a solution (electrolyte) H₂ SO₃ + 18 g·L^-1 NaCl + 1 M NaOH + Na₂ S·9H₂ O. The electrolyte was circulated all the time. The amount of catalytic mass in the reactor is equal to the catalytic amount in 10 cm² immersed electrodes (420 mg 35% teflonized Vulcan XC-72 + 18 mg DG (Standard Degussa carbon black) with 20% CoPc). The inlet and outlet concentrations were found analytically. Unfortunately we do not have a method for instant analysis of the solution in order to find the momentary reaction rate. The overall rate of the oxidation reduction process was estimated analytically after one hour of operation. The whole electrolyte volume of circulating electrolyte is [figure omitted; refer to PDF] mL. It can be converted into [figure omitted; refer to PDF] (electrochemical rate) with the aid of (5). The number of exchanged electrons, following reactions (2) and (3), is [figure omitted; refer to PDF] for H₂ S oxidation and [figure omitted; refer to PDF] for SO₂ reduction. All data are shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Data of initial and final concentration of S^2- and [figure omitted; refer to PDF] .

Reagent	Initial amount ( [figure omitted; refer to PDF] )	Final amount ( [figure omitted; refer to PDF] )	[figure omitted; refer to PDF] per hour ( [figure omitted; refer to PDF] - [figure omitted; refer to PDF] )	[figure omitted; refer to PDF] = [figure omitted; refer to PDF] / [figure omitted; refer to PDF] (mA)	[figure omitted; refer to PDF] = [figure omitted; refer to PDF] /10mA·cm-2
[figure omitted; refer to PDF] , mg·L-1	57	37.75	21.25
[figure omitted; refer to PDF] (gEqv)	3.56·10-3	2.23·10-3	1.33·10-3	35.64	3.56
[figure omitted; refer to PDF] , mg·L-1	40	16.5	23.5
Ns2- (gEqv)	23.5·10-3	9.7·10-3	13.8·10-3	37.0	3.7

From the good agreement between the analytical and electrochemical results as shown in Table 1, we can conclude that the electrochemical rather than chemical conversion of hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide is preferable.

4. Conclusion

The set-up used to accomplish the process discussed can be a continuously stirred tank reactor containing the sea water and the catalyst and bubbles by the stack gases containing sulfur dioxide. The process could be carried out either in acid or alkaline media.

Based on the data in Table 1 we can suppose that the conversion of 18 g hydrogen sulfide per hour into environmentally friendly products like sulfate, sulfur, and polysulfides will require about 460 g of catalyst.

Based on these results we have developed a method for purification of both contaminants at normal atmospheric conditions by electrochemical means. The optimum conditions and suitable catalytic mass have been determined. The realized process completely converts H₂ S and SO₂ into environmentally friendly products (sulfur, polysulfides, etc.). A medium size coal thermal power station of 630 MW releases about 20 metric tons of sulfur dioxide daily which requires 2 mln m³ (two million cubic meters per hour) of sea water.

One cubic meter of sea water (8 mg·L^-1 ; 8 g·m^-3 ) cleans three cubic meters of SO₂ containing gases ( [figure omitted; refer to PDF] = 0.1% vol.; ~2.85 g·m^-3 ).

It seems more realistic to convert reasonable amounts of hydrogen sulfide to produce sulfur and polysulfide as commercial products, thus reducing small amounts of sulfur dioxide, and to remove the rest by traditional methods, like treatment with lime or limestone.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the project Hydrogen Production from Black Sea Water by Sulfide-Driven Fuel Cell HYSULFCEL (http://bs-era.net/) of the 7 FP of the European Union, Contract DNS7RP 01/32, of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Bulgaria.

Conflict of Interests

The authors declare that there is no conflict of interests regarding the publication of this paper.

References

[1] C. F. Claus British Patent 5958, 1883

[2] P. F. Cross UK Patent Application GB 2503294 A, 2012

[3] Z. Nugeired EA 000764 B1, 1998

[4] V. K. Kam-Wang WO 2001053197 A1 (also US 6214311), 2000

[5] M. Rameshni WO2009055104 A2 (also US 7722852 B2), 2009

[6] T. Shimizu, M. Peglow, K. Yamagiwa, M. Tanaka, "Comparison among attrition-reaction models of SO₂ capture by uncalcined limestone under pressurized fluidized bed combustion conditions," Chemical Engineering Science , vol. 58, no. 13, pp. 3053-3057, 2003.

[7] L. Cholpanova, N. Kazanski, R. Tsacheva Bulgarian Environmental Projects , Pensoft, Bulgaria, Sofia, 1995.

[8] K. Petrov, "Electrochemical methods for cleansing of H₂ S and SO₂ in industrial and natural contaminated waters. Elcox method," Technological Innovations in Sensing and Detection of Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear Threats and Ecological Terrorism , of NATO Science for Peace and Security Series A: Chemistry and Biology, pp. 287-299, Springer, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2012.

[9] A. Midilli, M. Ay, A. Kale, T. N. Veziroglu, "A parametric investigation of hydrogen energy potential based on H2S in Black Sea deep waters," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy , vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 117-124, 2007.

[10] T. Chivers, J. B. Hyne, C. Lau, "The thermal decomposition of hydrogen sulfide over transition metal sulfides," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy , vol. 5, no. 5, pp. 499-506, 1980.

[11] S. Z. Baykara, E. H. Figen, A. Kale, T. Nejat Veziroglu, "Hydrogen from hydrogen sulphide in Black Sea," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy , vol. 32, no. 9, pp. 1246-1250, 2007.

[12] K. Petrov, S. Srinivasan, "Low temperature removal of hydrogen sulfide from sour gas and its utilization for hydrogen and sulfur production," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy , vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 163-169, 1996.

[13] L. Goltseva, A. Yutkin, "Black sea," Inventor , vol. 2, pp. 7, 1996.

[14] K. Petrov, S. Z. Baykara, D. Ebrasu, M. Gulin, A. Veziroglu, "An assessment of electrolytic hydrogen production from H₂ S in Black Sea waters," International Journal of Hydrogen Energy , vol. 36, no. 15, pp. 8936-8942, 2011.

[15] I. Streeter, A. J. Wain, J. Davis, R. G. Compton, "Cathodic reduction of bisulfite and sulfur dioxide in aqueous solutions on copper electrodes: an electrochemical ESR study," Journal of Physical Chemistry B , vol. 109, no. 39, pp. 18500-18506, 2005.

[16] Z. Mao, A. Anani, R. E. White, S. Srinivasan, A. J. Appleby, "Modified electrochemical process for the decomposition of hydrogen sulfide in an aqueous alkaline solution," Journal of the Electrochemical Society , vol. 138, no. 5, pp. 1299-1303, 1991.

[17] J. Zaman, A. Chakma, "Production of hydrogen and sulfur from hydrogen sulfide," Fuel Processing Technology , vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 159-198, 1995.

[18] K. Petrov, I. Nikolov, T. Vitanov, D. Uzun, V. Ognjanov, "Pyrolyzed Co-phtalocyanine as a catalyst for the oxidation of sulphur dioxide," Bulgarian Chemical Communications , vol. 42, no. 3, pp. 189-193, 2010.

[19] K. T. Chuang, J. C. Donini, A. R. Sanger, S. V. Slavov, "A proton-conducting solid state H₂ S-O₂ fuel cell 2. Production of liquid sulphur at 120-145°C," International Journal Hydrogen Energy , vol. 25, no. 9, pp. 887-894, 2000.

[20] C. Wagner, W. Z. Traud, "Über die deutung von korrosionsvorgangen durch überlagerung von elektrochemischen teilvorgangen und über die potentialbildung an mischelektroden," Zeitschrift für Elektrochemie und Angewandte Physikalische Chemie , vol. 44, pp. 391-402, 1938.

[21] V. V. Scorcelletti Theoretical Fundamentals of Corrosion in Metals , Khimia Leningrad: Chemistry, Saint Petersburg, Russia, 1973.

[22] M. Spiro, P. L. Freund, "Polyelectrodes: evidence for and against the wagner and traud additivity hypothesis," Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry , vol. 144, no. 1-2, pp. 293-301, 1983.

[23] K. Vetter Electrochemical Kinetics , Chemistry, Moscow, Russia, 1967.

[24] B. V. Romanovsky Fundamentals of Chemical Kinetics , Exam, Moscow, Russia, 2006.

[25] D. Uzun, E. Razkazova-Velkova, V. Beschkov, K. Petrov, "The electrochemical method for separation of sulphur dioxide and hydrogen sulphide from fluids," Bulgarian Patent Office, Patent Request Number: 111701, 2014

[26] D. Uzun, P. Hiev, D. Vladikova, P. Andreev, S. Balova, V. Nikolova, S. Vassilev, K. Petrov, "Electrocatalytic oxidation-reduction reactions of metal-hydride alloys with teflon-carbon additives," Bulgarian Chemical Communications , vol. 42, no. 2, pp. 113-118, 2010.

[27] N. P. Penchev, B. N. Zagorghev Analytic Chemistry, Quantity Analysis , Science and Art, Sofia, Bulgaria, 1956.

[28] A. Busev, L. Simon Analytical Chemistry of Sulphur , Science, Moscow, Russia, 1975.

[29] W. Fresenius, G. Jander Handbook for Analytical Chemistry , Springer, 1967., 4th.

[30] N. P. Penchev, B. N. Zagorghev Analytic Chemistry Qualitative Analysis , Science and Art, Sofia, Bulgaria, 1964.

[31] M. G. Bapat, B. Sharma, "Application of amperometric dead stop end point to iodate procedures in presence of mercuric mercury," Fresenius' Zeitschrift für Analytische Chemie , vol. 157, no. 4, pp. 258-261, 1957.

[32] D. Uzun, E. Razkazova-Velkova, K. Petrov, V. Beschkov, "Electrochemical method for energy production from hydrogen sulfide in the Black sea waters in sulphide-driven fuel cell," Bulgarian Chemical Communications , vol. 47, no. 3, pp. 859-866, 2015.

[33] A. Carbo Electrochemistry of Porous Materials , Taylor & Francis Group, 2012.