NOSTALGIA AND BRAND ATTACHMENT: THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND APPLICATION IN THE CASE OF A TUNISIAN ADVERTISING

Abstract

As studied in recent consumer research, the relationship between the nostalgia and brand attachment seems to be neglected for a while. Marketing literature reveals many studies interested by the nostalgia characteristics and its effects on consumer behavior in general and the attitude to brand, in particular. However, questions remain concerning whether the relationship between nostalgia and brand attachment can be regarded as a positive one. To this end, this research presents an integrative model and investigates the relationship between the nostalgia and the brand attachment in the specific case of a Tunisian advertising. The results of a quantitative research conducted among 112 consumers exposed to a television advertisement prove that only age and nostalgic events explain the nostalgia proneness of the Tunisian consumer. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Headnote

ABSTRACT:

As studied in recent consumer research, the relationship between the nostalgia and brand attachment seems to be neglected for a while. Marketing literature reveals many studies interested by the nostalgia characteristics and its effects on consumer behavior in general and the attitude to brand, in particular. However, questions remain concerning whether the relationship between nostalgia and brand attachment can be regarded as a positive one. To this end, this research presents an integrative model and investigates the relationship between the nostalgia and the brand attachment in the specific case of a Tunisian advertising.

The results of a quantitative research conducted among 112 consumers exposed to a television advertisement prove that only age and nostalgic events explain the nostalgia proneness of the Tunisian consumer.

Key words: Nostalgia, nostalgia proneness, brand attachment

INTRODUCTION:

While the term of nostalgia is now widely used in several domains, its origins were in medicine and used for the first time in 1668 by Hofer (1934). Then, the concept of nostalgia was developed and used into different domains from psychology (Rose, 1948) to literature (Doane and Hodges, 1987) and sociology in particular with Davis (1979). After its introduction in marketing, several researches was developed especially after Stern works (1992) which was concentrated on the effect of the end of the 20 th century on the behavior of the consumer thus supporting the appearance of the phenomenon of nostalgia. Work will follow thereafter we include Baker and Kennedy (1994) who proposed a typology of nostalgia. Other authors were able to identify its antecedents (Holbrook and Schindler, 1989; Hirsch, 1992; Kessous and Roux, 2006) and present its impact on consumer behavior after watching the nostalgic advertising (Pérrusson, 2003; Boulbry, 2006). Indeed, it appears that the nostalgic advertising can develop an emotional bond toward the brand (Ben Hassine & Karaa, 2004) causing the brand attachment (Kessous, 2006, 2009; Kessous and Roux, 2007, 2008).

Despite the conceptual relevance and the increasing attention paid to nostalgia and its effects on band attachment, the domain so far lacks a solid theoretical structure. Moreover, Lacoeuilhe (2000) noted the existence of a relationship between nostalgia and brand attachment without conducting a valid empirical studies. In quantitative research, Kessous (2006) assumed the existence of a positive relationship between nostalgia and brand attachment and has subsequently established a typology of consumers using a semiotics analysis (Kessous, 2008; Kessous and Roux, 2009) and confirmatory factor analysis (Kessous and Roux, 2009) and tried to empirically validate the existence of this relationship (Kessous, 2009, Kessous and Roux, 2010).

As part of this article, we will try to explain the nature of the relationship between the nostalgia proneness of the Tunisian consumer and the brand attachment.

To do this, we first present the theoretical framework of research and assumptions that result. In a second step, we show the methodology adopted. In a third step, we present the results of the study conducted on a sample of 112 individuals. In conclusion, we point out the contributions, limitations and avenues of research.

NOSTALGIA: A BRIEF BACKGROUND

Although its origins can be traced as far back as the mid seventeenth century, the use of nostalgia on the marketing domain still recent. In fact, some authors emphasize that the first use of the concept of nostalgia was in the field of medicine (Evrard et al., 2003). Other authors such as Martin (1954) and Rauch (1998) argue that the concept was implicated by Hofer (1688) as a psychological explanation for "Heimweh". Nostalgia was considered as a description of a disease that is decimating the Swiss soldiers. The French call it homesickness or nostalgia derived from "nostos", return (at home) and "algos" pain or suffering (Rauch, 1998).

It appears that the integration of nostalgia in the marketing field is more than just passing research fad and accords with the postmodern conception of consumer nostalgic and regressive (Babot and Cova, 2003) and with what Stern (1992) called "effect the end of the century". Indeed, the literature review has revealed that many authors were interested in studying this concept in a marketing context for several purposes starting from strategic purposes and / or tactical (Gouteron, 2004; Kessous & Roux , 2006) or in order to live the nostalgia experience.

Even the universal nature of nostalgia (Ruml, 1933, Martin, 1954; Rauch, 1999), researches in marketing still based on intuitive basis, except those of Kessous & Roux (2006, 2008, 2009, 2010) who have tried to understand the nature of the relationship between nostalgia and brand attachment. Thus, the main definitions advanced in the literature have been grouped in Table 1 (in the Appendix section)

We can divide researches in marketing into two groups: Anglo-Saxon studies interested in the history criteria of nostalgia, and relationships with brands associated with the nostalgia (Bellelli, 1991, Holbrook & Schindler, 1991; Havlena & Holak , 1991, 1992; Hirsh, 1992; Stern, 1992, Baker & Kennedy, 1994) and French studies focused on the development, adaptation, or the comparison of measurement scales of nostalgia using advertising(Divard Demontrond and Robert, 1997).

Nostalgic Advertising: Nature and characteristics

Initial empirical studies indicate that nostalgic themes are used in advertising. In particular, the nostalgic advertising allows immediate connection with the consumer inspiration and creates a positive emotional response towards advertising and brand. Thus, this relationship depends on the broadcast nature advertising and the importance of people, places, objects and events in the nostalgic experience (Holak & Havlena, 1992).

Shimp et al. (1988) proved that attitude toward advertising is in accordance of the brand; that's why if the reactions of consumers according to the message indicates positive attitude, real product will have the same attitude. Definitely, it appears that if the individual is exposed to a nostalgic advertisement, he can, subsequently, develop positive reactions towards the promoted brand based (Kessous, 2006, 2009).

The nostalgia antecedent:

Early research has also documented that there is two types of variables, qualified as antecedent of nostalgia: attitudinal variables and socio-demographic variables. Kessous and Roux (2006) have grouped the attitudinal variables into two groups: the nostalgia proneness and the nostalgic sensibility of individuals at different sensory stimuli such as odor (Hirsch, 1992) and music (Holbrook and Schindler, 1989; Baumgartner, 1992). Kessous and Roux (2009) explained that nostalgia depends certainly on the attitudinal variables as well as socio-demographic variables: age and gender. Certainly, the marketing literature presents several studies on the gender variable such Holbrook (1994) who showed that men are more sensitive than women to nostalgic stimuli since they are more affected by discontinuities of life. In another way, Havlena and Holak (1991) showed that the intensity of nostalgic feelings diverge during life and is strongly depend on the age.

BRAND ATTACHMENT: GENEALOGY AND DEFINITIONS

Previous work on attachment has been designed to reproduce the relationship between mother / son in order to understand the specificity of the reaction in case of this circumstance (Lacoeuilhe 1997) and characterize the attachment degree of mother toward her son. For that reason, attachment theory is based on the analysis of interpersonal relationship between individuals who try to develop strong emotional quality among others as well as the objects (Maissoneuve, 1966, Bowlby, 1969). Therefore we can conclude that brand reliability seems to be an emotional connection between brand and consumer. Indeed, this idea has been supported by Fournier (1998), Lacoeuilhe (2000), Cristau (2001) and Heilbrunn (2001) who proved that the emergence of emotional factors in the relationship of reliability are the foundation of the concept of the brand attachment.

Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton (1981) have defined brand attachment as a psychic investment while others authors like McQueen et al. (1993), Feldwick (1996), Heilbrunn (1996) and Lacoeuilhe (1997) described the brand attachment as a long-term emotional predisposition manifested by the consumer to a brand (Ratier, 2003).

Heilbrunn (2001) considers that there is a relationship between nostalgia and brand attachment, but the nature remains to be identified and validated by empirical studies. Various researches in marketing showed the existence of relationship between advertising and brand attachment without specifying the nature of this relationship. Thus, Pérrusson (2003) was interested in the nostalgia used in TV ad without focusing on the relationship between the ad and the brand attachment. In fact, she limited her study on the analysis of the effect of nostalgia on consumer response toward the ads.

So, we can confirm that the authors have shown the impact of nostalgia on consumer preferences experiential (Holbrook & Schindler, 1991; Goulding 2001) and material consumption preferences (Rindfleisch et al. 2000; Holbrook and Schindler, 2003), but the literature has never explored in depth the potential relationships between the two concepts of nostalgia and brand attachment in the specific context advertising, except the study of Kessous (2009) that discussed the consequences of nostalgia on the attitudes and relationships with brands.

HYPOTHESES AND CONCEPTUAL MODEL:

As a first goal of this research, we seek to test whether the nostalgia proneness is influenced by the age. If the nostalgia is related to the age, so we seek whether a nostalgic ad will influence old consumers more than the young ones.

H1: When exposed to an ad evoking nostalgia, old persons are more predisposed to the nostalgia than young people.

As our second goal, we seek to test whether the gender influence the nostalgia proneness. From the literature, it appears that men are more sensitive to nostalgia than women.

H2: When exposed to an ad evoking nostalgia, the men are more predisposed to the nostalgia than the women

As our third goal, we seek to extend the previous finding that consumers develop a nostalgic affect when they hear a nostalgic music. In our particular case, we will check the influence of the music used on a Tunisian TV ad on the nostalgia proneness.

H3: When exposed to an ad evoking nostalgia, nostalgic music of the ad has a positive effect on nostalgia proneness.

As our fourth goal, we seek to extend the finding that consumers develop a nostalgic affect when they remember some events from the past. Moreover, we seek to test the influence of those events and locations on the nostalgia proneness.

H4.a: When exposed to an ad evoking nostalgia, events have a positive effect on nostalgia proneness.

H4.b: When exposed to an ad evoking nostalgia, locations have a positive effect on nostalgia proneness.

As our fifth goal, we seek to investigate the relationship between the nostalgia proneness and brand attachment.

H5: There is a positive relationship between nostalgia proneness and brand attachment

As our final goal, we test whether the gender tend to moderate the relationship between nostalgia proneness and brand attachment

H6: Gender has a moderating effect on the relationship between nostalgia proneness and brand attachment

After exposing the hypothesis of this research, we can present the model as shown on the figure 1(in the Appendix section). The postulated relationships are assumed significant and positive.

METHODOLOGY

Since we are interested on Tunisian advertisement we decided to adopt a Tunisian food advertising based on the results of the study conducted by Kessous (2009) who showed strong nostalgic connection with such products compared to leather goods, clothing and accessories. Many ads were selected. Although it was believed that the nostalgic feeling a person would associate with an ad would not be mediated by the person's attitude toward the ad if the person did not like it, then nostalgia would not be felt (Baker et Kennedy, 1994). So we focus on this and we have shown 4 selected ads to a sample of 30 students. The results were in favor of the television ad of a much known brand of Tunisian couscous "L'épi d'or".

We used questionnaire to collect data on respondent's attachment to brand and nostalgia proneness. A 7 points Likert scale was used and we have adopted the measurement scales of Pérrusson (2003) and Blaid & Lacoeuilhe (2005) that appears on table 2 (in the Appendix section).To make the final data collection, we conducted a preliminary questionnaire with 30 students (convenience sample) to examine the factorial structures and reliability of scales that allow us to purify our measurement scales.

As already mentioned, we must consider the age parameter, that's why we opted to heterogeneous sample (quota sample). We choose to collect data on the area of the Ariana (Tunisia) and we interviewed 112 persons.

Based on the latest census of population of Tunisia (2004), we identified that population is divided in 7 age groups. However, the theme of nostalgia pushes us to exclude the age groups up to 19 years since these individuals are enough young to have a nostalgic experience. That's why we conducted our survey on a group aged from 20 years over 60 years as shown on table 3(in the Appendix section).

The questionnaire was conducted in three steps:

- The first step of data collection concerns the age group 20-29 years: we interviewed students. In classroom, students were asked to complete the first part of the questionnaire. Then, after seeing the ad, they were asked to complete the self-administered questionnaire.

-Second step: data collection of age group starting from 30 to 59 years: Since this age group corresponds to active persons, we chose to collect data in a public administration. Employees were asked to see the ad in laptop and to complete the self-administered questionnaire.

- Third step: Data collection of older persons (60 years and over): This age corresponds, in most cases, to retired persons. That's why we conducted questionnaire at home. The questionnaire was self administered in the same manner as other phases.

ANALYSES AND RESULTS

Analysis of the relationships was conducted primarily by means of principal components and we have identified two factors: the past regret and reminder of memories. Similarly, the analysis factor of the brand attachment scale has enabled us to identify two factors namely brand attachment and dependence on the brand as shown on table 4 (in the Appendix section).

To test our hypotheses, we opted for simple and multiple regressions and analysis of variance ANOVA.

Impact of age on the reminder of memories:

The results of the ANOVA showed that there is no significant difference between groups of individuals belonging to different age groups (F = 1887, df = 111, p = 0,118> 0.05) and reminder of memories. Both young and older people remember their memories despite of their ages.

Impact of age on the regret of past

The results obtained from the second ANOVA showed that there is a significant difference between groups of individuals belonging to different age groups (F = 3005, df = 111, P = 0.02). However, these results confirm that the regret of the past varies with age. We then opted for a POST-HOC test and the results showed that groups of individuals belonging to age groups 40 years until 60 years and over, are different (p = 0.025 for the age of 40 to 49 years, p = 0.004 for the age group 50 to 59 years, p = 0.001 for age 60 and over).

Thus, these results allow us to say that more the individual is older; more regrets are bigger. We conclude that the hypothesis H1 is partially validated.

Gender influence on nostalgia proneness

Examining the results of the ANOVA, we conclude that there was no significant difference between asked people. Thus, the regret of the past and recall of memory appear to be independent of the gender of asked persons (F1 = 0558, df = 111, P1 = 0451> 0.05 / F2 = 0614, df = 111, 0435 = P2> 0.05). So the hypothesis H2 is rejected.

Impact of music on nostalgia proneness:

To emphasize the existence or not of a positive relationship between music and nostalgia proneness, we conducted two regressions.

Impacts of music on the reminder of memories:

The Fisher test (F = 2,521, p = 0,115> 0.05) proves that the model is not significant. Even if the music in the spot is perceived by the respondent as nostalgic, but it has no relationship with the factor: reminder of memories.

Impact of music on the regret of the past:

The results of the Fisher test (F = 5.497, P = 0.021) shows the existence of a significant and positive impact on regret of the past factor which permits to us to partially validate our hypothesis H3.

Impact of situational factors on nostalgia proneness

Two regressions were made. The first indicates a positive impact of events presented during the ad on the regret of the past factor. Indeed, this factor has 9.3% of the variance of regret of the past factor (R 2 = 0,093, adjusted R 2 = 0.084). Similarly for the reminder of memories factor, it appears that the events mentioned in nostalgic advertising have a positive impact on the reminder of memories. Events explain 3.7% of the variance in the size of memory recall (R 2 = 0.037, adjusted R 2 = 0.028).

Finally, we can say that the events presented in an ad have a positive impact on nostalgia proneness, so the hypothesis H 4.A is validated.

Impact of locations on nostalgia proneness:

The regression analysis shows a positive impact between the locations in an ad and the nostalgia proneness. Indeed, the nostalgic places in advertising have about 7.6% of the variance of regret of the past factor (R 2 = 0,076, adjusted R 2 = 0.067). The overall regression model was significant (F = 9,028, p = 0.003).

However, the examination of Fisher's test (F = 2,646, p = 0.107) shows that the relationship between the nostalgic places mentioned in the ad and the reminder of memories factor is not significant and that even if mentioned places are supposed to be nostalgic, this has no impact on the recall of memories of the past. Through these results, we can deduce that the hypothesis H4.B is validated only for regret of the past factor.

Impact of nostalgia proneness on brand attachment:

The examination of the regression shows that the regret of the past has a significant positive effect on brand attachment. Indeed, the regret of the past factor explains 5.6% of the variance in brand attachment factor (R 2 = 0.056, adjusted R 2 = 0.047).

The overall regression model is significant, even for reminder of memories factor. The results show that the recall of memory has a significant positive effect on brand attachment. This factor explains 4.6% of the variance in brand attachment factor (R 2 = 0.046, adjusted R 2 = 0.036). This second regression model was significant (F = 4.682, p = 0.033).

Even for the past regret factor, the results show that there is no significant relationship between brand dependence and regret of the past (p = 0.150> 0.05). So we can conclude that even if the consumer regrets his past, this does not affect its degree of dependence on the brand.

However, it appears that there is a significant and positive relationship between reminder of memories and the dependence of the brand. Thus, if a brand reminds the individual memories, it increases its reliance on it. Then, these results allow us to partially validate the hypothesis H5.

The moderating role of gender in the relationship between nostalgia proneness and brand attachment:

To highlight the moderating effect of gender on this relationship, we referred to the research of Chumpitaz and Vanhamme (2003) who recommend an analysis by subgroups. The comprehensive review of factors that we have shown proving that gender does not exert a moderating effect on the relationship between nostalgia proneness and brand attachment so the hypothesis H6 is rejected.

CONCLUSION

At the end of our research, it appears that nostalgia proneness is not only function of age. However, older people are sensitive and tend to regret their past more than young people since they have not yet lived long enough to talk about the past because in most cases, nostalgic scenes represent a present experience for young. This result agrees with the findings of Davis (1979) which showed that nostalgia can be felt only for periods actually experienced by the individual, so personal experience and not a narrative. In doing so, our results validate partially the comments developed by Goulding (2001), Holbrook and Schindler (2003) and more recently those of Kessous & Roux (2007) which confirm that age has a positive impact on nostalgia proneness.

On the other hand, we have demonstrated that gender has no impact on nostalgia proneness. Our results are in perfect agreement with the findings of Holbrook (1993).

imilarly, we have concluded that music has a positive and significant impact on the regret the past. Indeed, it appears that even if the music used in ad is perceived by the respondent as nostalgic (type of music, song accompaniment, tone, voice, etc.) this has no connection with the memories. In our research, respondents tend to regret their past when they hear the nostalgic music of the ad without remembering their childhood memories. However, we note that this result validates the hypothesis initially supported by Holbrook & Schindler (1989) and Holbrook (1993) which states that music preferences revealed maturity remain throughout the life cycle of the person and allow recalling the happy memories.

We were also able to validate the hypothesis initially supported by Holak and Havlena (1992) that the events (marriage, birth, etc) shown in the ad have a positive effect on nostalgia proneness. Indeed, it appears that the events remind people their happy memories and cause them to regret their past.

From a managerial point of view, our research is interesting for the specialists in advertising and showed them the importance of the use of nostalgia in order to create an emotional link with the promoted brand. As common in research on consumer behavior, the findings reported in this study are subject to certain important limitations. Indeed, the sample on which we based our research is an empirical sample and do not allow the generalization of results on the entire population. In addition, conditions for data collection are far from the real experimental conditions because we were unable to control the other external stimuli that may distract the respondent. Therefore we recommend for future researchers trying equating the conditions of the investigation in an experiment.

Also, during the administration of the questionnaire for people aged over 60 years, we brought in 95% of cases to administer the questionnaire face to face and make an effort to translate items from French to Arabic even in the Tunisian dialect which may distort the results because the scales have not been pre-tested in the case of changing the original language in which they were written. We therefore hope the consideration of this matter in future researches and develop a measurement scales adapted to the Tunisian context. A final limitation of our research concerns the fact that we have take only one variable "nostalgia proneness" excluding other factors such as personal experience of the person, cultural affiliation, the quality of imagery and sensory acuity in the process of formation of attitude toward ad and brand, as suggested by Divard & Robert-Demontrond (1997).

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Appendix

(ProQuest: Appendix omitted.)mitted.)