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INTRODUCTION
This focus of this paper is the development of a unified systems theory of organizations based on open systems theory, especially strategic contingency theory and resource dependency theory, and the concepts of systems thinking. To this end, the paper will first develop a model based on key elements selected from Lawrence and Lorsch (1986), Pfeffer and Salancik (1978), Senge (1990), the journal articles summarized in the annotated bibliography, and the expertise of the writer in building decision models for managers. Then, the focus will shift to a critical assessment of the model (integrated theory) based on the six criteria for a practical theory developed in the second section. The last section of section three will deal with open issues and provide suggestions for additional research and action.
ANATOMY OF THE INTEGRATED MODEL
Strategic Contingency Theory
The purpose of this section is to review the aspects of strategic contingency theory that can shed light towards the development of a macro theory of organizations as social systems.
Lawrence and Lorsch (1986) found that organizational performance depended on the degree to which organizations fit their structure (and internal conflict resolution processes) to the demands of their environment:
These findings suggest a contingency theory of organization which recognizes their systemic nature. The basic assumption underlying such a theory, which the findings of the study strongly suggest, is that organizational variables are in a complex interrelationship with one another and with conditions in the environment, (p. 157).
Thus, strategic contingency theory is a broad, general theory that prescribes an approach to organizational design (i.e., design the organization to fit the environment) without specifying exactly how to do it. Several of the journal articles deal with attempts by various researchers in the field to validate and extend the theory by applying it to specific situations.
Noteworthy among the studies performed for this purpose is that of Lee and Miller (1996). They examined the application of strategic contingency theory to Korean companies and found that "the match between strategy and environment was related to performance, especially in challenging settings" (p. 731). Comparing firms that used established technologies supported by the government to firms that relied on the application of emergent technologies to survive in highly competitive markets, the authors found...