Performance Coaching to Develop Emotional Intelligence Through a Lens of Double Loop Learning: A UK Hospitality Industry Study

Abstract

Coaching and emotional intelligence factor widely in organisational practice, yet in respect of emotional intelligence remain controversial. This study reveals how many researchers, practitioners and populist writers' remark on the interplay and inseparability of these two terms and yet little empirical research evidence exists which statistically signify its evidential understanding. This study makes clear this link through a pre-post triangulated analysis demonstrating how an awareness of a coaching 'G.R.O. W.' model technique, and its subsequent continual practice, develops individual junior management emotional intelligence within the UK hospitality industry arena. Findings indicate that there is a statistically significant association between an individual who is given awareness and classroom based practical understanding of coaching and incremental positive emotional intelligence development.

Headnote

Abstract

Coaching and emotional intelligence factor widely in organisational practice, yet in respect of emotional intelligence remain controversial. This study reveals how many researchers, practitioners and populist writers' remark on the interplay and inseparability of these two terms and yet little empirical research evidence exists which statistically signify its evidential understanding. This study makes clear this link through a pre-post triangulated analysis demonstrating how an awareness of a coaching 'G.R.O. W.' model technique, and its subsequent continual practice, develops individual junior management emotional intelligence within the UK hospitality industry arena. Findings indicate that there is a statistically significant association between an individual who is given awareness and classroom based practical understanding of coaching and incremental positive emotional intelligence development.

Key words: Coaching, Emotional Intelligence, Double-loop learning, Hospitality Industry.

Background

This study proposes that an awareness of coaching tools and practice has a beneficial effect on an individual's emotional intelligence. Through the examination of secondary research literature, and an empirical research group analysis conducted by the author (focusing on 29 junior level managers across three UK hospitality industry organizations), this study intends to support and quantify this connection. The achievement of this would add powerful practical justifying cause for Hospitality firms to further promote coaching awareness amongst junior levels of management in the work force; spark new directions of scholarly debate around further cultural, geographic and industry applicability; and importantly reinforce growing literary evidence (Beattie et al, 2014; Kim et al, 2012; Grant et al., 2010), advocating further organizational use of coaching and emotional intelligence.

The popularity of emotional intelligence as a construct grew through the late 1990's (Goleman, 1995) and "has its origins... in much earlier work in social intelligence" (Clarke, 2006, p.422). There are many critics of emotional intelligence, however, who have dismissed it as an unproven concept (Woodruffe, 2001) and invalid as a form of intelligence too broad to define (Locke, 2005, p.425; Roberts et al., 2001). In contrast, others point to its effectiveness as a concept to impact team performance, to enable individuals to cope better with job related tension and deal with conflict resolution (Wall, 2007, p.47). Indeed, some studies put up to 85% of financial business success down to emotional intelligence in comparison to 15% attributed to IQ and technical experience (Neale et al., 2009, p. 12).

Wall (2007a, p.68) advocates that "coaching is nothing more than having frequent conversations about performance and emotional intelligence". Grant et al. (2010, p. 125) is supportive of this view that coaching grows "reciprocal relationships between one's feelings, behaviours and the environment". Although the state of play of coaching today is said to be worth over $1.5 billion a year (Grant et al., 2010, p.125) The research literature note a "paucity of research on emotional intelligence in Coaching" (Hwang et al. 2013, p.12). Other investigatory studies also call for an evaluation of interventions to increase people's emotional intelligence (Wiegand, 2007, p.396); and unbiased emotional intelligence control studies presented by individuals without a vested occupational coaching interest (Styhre and Josephson, 2007, p.1303).

Research Questions

Literary studies note an emerging interplay, relationship and parallel between coaching and emotional intelligence (Neale et al. 2009, p.1) yet, Grant (2007, p.259) highlights a general lack of research that looks at the impact of coaching-skill training on both emotional intelligence and individuals' coaching skill levels which led him to conduct a study on Human Resource professionals and links to improvement in emotional intelligence over a 13-week work placed longitudinal study. This research reported significant gains after formal ongoing coaching training intervention but did not see any significant difference after a two-day coaching course. This study's objective is to extend, diversify, and challenge Grant's findings by discovering if a one day industry specific coaching awareness course can impact emotional intelligence positively in comparison to a control group; and, furthermore, the extent to which candidates develop their emotional intelligence awareness relative to the regularity of coaching frequency they go on to individually adopt.

The Hypothesis are two-fold:

Hi An awareness of business performance coaching as a technique has a favourable correlation to an individual 's emotional intelligence, and component forms, in comparison to those without a formal awareness.

Furthermore;

H2 Practical experience of performance coaching further increases an individual's level of emotional intelligence, and component forms, compared to that of having just an awareness of the technique.

Research Objectives

A comprehensive analysis of coaching and emotional intelligence literature is undertaken, exploring with it a UK hospitality industry application. Similarities of concepts and models are examined to create a vision of intradependence (Covey, 2004). Time bound quantitative and self-composed qualitative research templates were adopted to obtain the research data. Specifically, global industry leading emotional intelligence self-completed questionnaires were administered before exposing and schooling focus group candidates with a bespoke coaching development day constructed to equip managers with a coaching understanding. Following four months of varied individual use, and exposure to coaching practice in the field, the same questionnaires were administered again to gather any incremental changes in emotional intelligence. A follow up semi-structured telephone questionnaire was conducted by the researcher at the same time to understand the degree to which coaching was adopted and practiced and what elements were found to be most useful and interesting for the candidate. Findings of both these questionnaires are then presented across 12 emotional intelligence competency headings detailing specific variances uncovered. Importantly, a similar control group of candidates was set up which were not exposed to this coaching encounter and was questioned along the same period to allow for expositional comparison to take place. This field data importantly provides conclusions and analysis to be drawn regarding the research hypothesis posed against the background of the literature review. Further theoretical and practical implications are then drawn to provide recommendations on enhanced coaching and emotional intelligence return on investment possibilities and areas for further academic investigation and empirical exploration.

Literature Review

A critical assessment underpinning the core previous relevant research into performance coaching and emotional intelligence follows with the intention of substantiating robust analysis of the interlock between these effectual constructs. Coaching skills, for example, have according to many practitioners and academics alike become an indispensable reality of organisational practice (Grant, 2007, p.257; Cox et al., 2011) exemplified by 77% of companies in the UK utilising coaching practices in 2011 with 84% of those using coaching more comprehensively now than they were two years ago, (CIPD, 2011, p.3). Indeed, coaching Return On Investment (R.O.I.) figures report variances of 788% (Kampa-Kokesch and McGovern et al., 2001) and 545% (Anderson, et al., 2001).

Early Research claims have espoused emotional intelligence as being as important as I.Q. (Druscatt and Wolff, 2001) and twice as important as technical skills (Goleman, 1998, p.94). In fact, Goleman attests how his "research, along with other recent studies, clearly shows that emotional intelligence is the sine qua non of leadership... (without it, a person...) won't make a great leader" (Goleman, 1998, p.94).

This literature review intends to understand both constructs individually before looking at the interplay between them. The relevancy of this will then be applied specifically to the UK Hospitality Industry before distinguishing the compelling interplay that coaching awareness, and continual coaching practice, has on incremental emotional intelligence understanding, competence, and development.

Performance coaching and the GROW model

Since Mace (1950) introduced the concept of coaching to management, there has been a great deal of confusion about what coaching means, (Sue-Chan et al, 2012, p.811; Cox et al, 2014). Indeed, research has mushroomed into a panoply of coaching theoretical conditions contrasted within differing genres and contexts (Cox et al, 2014).

For reasons of expositional clarity this research focuses on Performance Coaching which is directly concerned with "improving performance over a specific timeframe... in workplace settings... by which the coachee sets goals, overcomes obstacles and evaluates and monitors his or her performance" (Grant et al. 2010, p.127).

Beatie et al., (2014, p.187), highlights recent surveys conducted by the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) showing coaching to be "the most effective form of learning and development in organizations... most associated with performance management". This is since coaching is a "person-centred action-learning" approach (Bozer et al., 2014, p.881); one where both individuals bring a range of capabilities and predispositions to interact (Sue-Chan et al, 2012), through an actor-orientated (Lobato, 2006) transfer approach.

Ellinger et al., (2010, p.262) identifies the "often difficult relationship" many managers have in trying to establish coaching dialogues. The confusion on whether to wear a developmental or directive managerial hat requires critical emotional maturity (Hunt and Weintraub 2010). Behavioural taxonomies (Beattie 2002; Ellinger and Bostrom 2002) required to facilitate effective coaching sessions centre on the characteristics of empathy in dealing with others, ability to establish trust and rapport, building relationships and adopting questioning techniques and observation skills. Passmore goes further and draws on research originally established by Rogers (1957) to identify five key coaching partnership requirements explicit in any coaching encounter. These are mutual respect and trust; holding a positive self-image; displaying empathy; act openly and honestly; and putting the coachee at the heart of the discussion.

Although many models and techniques exist to carry out performance coaching, (Shervington 2002; De Shazer 1985) no one option claims superiority over the other as individual and corporate nuances and preferences afford every model different benefits and applications (Mcleod 2003, p.181). Kauffman et al. (2010, p.160) succinctly cites the most widely adopted practitioner view, however, that "many coaches use the GROW model as a way to structure the coaching session", made famous by Sir John Whitmore, Graham Alexander and Alan Fine (Fine and Merrill 2010). GROW is not without criticism as a model, however, with Grant (2011) noting how it fails to consider where people are coming from before attempting to determine where they want to go; while Bishop (2015) pronounces how the model is limited in application and fails to consider intrinsic motivational factors. Notwithstanding these points, this study has adopted this model due to its industry wide popularity, acceptance and understanding (Fine and Merrill, 2010). Whitmore (2003, p.173) articulates how the GROW acronym is based on a context of awareness and responsibility with key skills of effective questioning and active listening at the heart. The GROW sequence stands for "the coachee's goals; the reality of the coachee's current circumstances, resources and obstacles; the options for moving toward a goal; and the will/way forward, that is, the personal importance of a goal that ignites the coachee's motivation and the specific action steps needed for goal achievement". (Kauffman et al., 2010, p.160). Indeed Kauffman et al. (2010, p.162) shows how a GROW methodology is said to put goal setting methods into practice "by structuring the coaching encounter as an active synthesis of support and challenge, addressing both positive and negative emotion and experience".

Conceptual emotional intelligence paradigms

As early as the 1920's Thorndike (1920, p.227) explored the concept of multiple Intelligences when he noted "the facts of everyday life, when inspected critically, indicate that a man has not some one amount of one kind of intelligence, but varying amounts of differing intelligences". Other scholars went on to add further to the debate on multiple intelligences (Chopra and Kanji, 2010) but it was not until the early 1980's when Gardner, (1983) looked at this understanding and identified an arbitrary seven different components; logical, linguistic, spatial, musical, kinaesthetic, intrapersonal and interpersonal. Early studies on emotional intelligence focused on the final two strains which went on to popularise the concept of emotional intelligence (Goleman 1995, p.38), notably, where intrapersonal concerns understanding our own self-regard while interpersonal looks at our relationships with others (Neale et al., 2009). The first academic use of the term emotional intelligence was coined in 1986 by Wayne Leon Pyne in an unpublished thesis (Chopra and Kanji, 2010, p.974). It took, however, a further 2 years for Bar-On (1988) to complete a Doctoral dissertation and 4 years, until collaboration between Salovey and Mayer (1990) produced the first published study into emotional intelligence

For expositional clarity, The Encyclopedia of Applied Psychology (Batool, 2013, p.87) cites three conceptual emotional intelligence paradigms, p. The Ability Based Model, p. the only one type of this kind and preferred scientific academic measurement (Daus and Ashkanasy 2005; Law et al., 2004) first designed by Salovey and Mayer in 1990, and then redesigned in 1997 and 2005. It produces four cognitive subscales, p. Perception, Assimilation, Understanding and Managing Emotions (Conte, 2005, p.435). Interestingly, Mayer and Salovey (1997, p.5) devised the most widely adopted definition of emotional intelligence (following a comprehensive review of academic research); "the ability to perceive accurately, appraise and express emotions; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth". Although academically popular in design for testing emotional problems (Cote and Miners, 2006); offering scientifically valid instruments (Riggio and Reichard, 2008), p. and being more conceptually accurate to qualify as an Intelligence (Law et al 2004), critics have argued The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional intelligence Test (MSCEIT) may only measure conformity, not competence (Roberts et al., 2001); measure knowledge of emotions and not necessarily an ability to act upon them (Brody, 2004); and not prove practically significant in today's workplace (Bradberry and Su, 2006).

The Mixed Ability Model, by contrast, comprises aspects of both personality and abilities (Clarke 2006a, p.426) which measure emotional intelligence with two empirically tested models from Bar-On (1997) and Dulewicz and Higgs (1999) exploring a far wider array of emotional mental ability elements (Mishra and Mohapatra, 2009). Bar-On et al. (2003, p.1790) defines emotional intelligence under this classification as "an array of emotional and social abilities, competencies and skills that enable individuals to cope with daily demands and be more effective in their personal and social life". Bar-On, based on his experience as a research psychologist (McEnrue and Groves, 2006), first coined the phrase Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) in test development. Taking 30 minutes to administer, the test measures composite intelligence scores of; Intrapersonal; Interpersonal; adaptability; general mood; and stress management with internal validity of .76 (Bar-On, 2000).

Conversely, the Personality or Trait based Measure (the final paradigm), p. has existed within several dispositional measures (Kim and Agrusa, 2011, p.589) notably; the Trait Meta-Mood scale (Salovey et al., 1995); the Schutte self-report emotional intelligence inventory (Schutte et al., 1998); the Swinburne University Emotional intelligence Test (Clarke, 2006) the Wong and Law emotional intelligence Scale (Wong and Law, 2002); the Trait emotional intelligence Questionnaire (Petrides and Furnham, 2003); And the Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI, p. Boyatzis et al., 2000) which evolved through ECI-2 into the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory in response to "some criticism of our approach to conceptualising and measuring emotional intelligence in the professional research community" (Boyatzis, 2011). By far, the most popular pioneering speaker (Signar et al., 2012; Khalili, 2012, p.356), early discussion writer (Mayer and Caruso, 2002, p.1) and best known supporter (Lam and Kirby, 2002, p.134) of emotional intelligence was Daniel Goleman. Although Goleman (1995, p.xiv) embraced emotional intelligence as an umbrella term to "include inculcating, essential human competencies such as awareness, self-control, and empathy, and the arts of listening resolving conflicts and cooperation", it wasn't until 1998 that he defined emotional competence as "a learned capability based on emotional intelligence which results in outstanding performance at work" (Boyatzis, 2011, p.94). Goleman in partnership with Boyatzis (and through the Hay Group global consultancy firm) developed a self-report; trait based, competency Inventory test termed ESCI. This model, containing 12 competencies, is organised around a framework of four clusters; Self-Awareness; Self-Management; Social Awareness; and Relationship Management (Hay Group, 2011).

Interestingly, intense criticism (Zeidner et al. 2004) has been placed at the door of the latter two paradigms as not being scientifically conceptual (Mishra and Mohapatra, 2009). Despite this Nelis et al. (2009) exemplifies "how these three levels of EI are loosely connected; knowledge does not always translate into abilities, which, in turn, do not always translate into practice". In fact, Wolfe and Kim (2015, p. 178) support this discord noting "researchers should consider the most appropriate one for their purpose".

Linkages between coaching and emotional intelligence

Many similarities can be seen to exist between these socially constructed models from the capacity to listen and co-operate; to conflict resolution, self-control, and awareness. Support for this inseparability is provided by Grant (2007, p.258) who précis "coaching skills are inextricably linked to emotional intelligence" and Sir John Whitmore articulating how "emotionally intelligent people behave with fundamental coaching beliefs. (Neale et al., 2009). Further support and evidence in support of this intradependence can be seen where the coach and the coachee need to be prepared to encounter strong and often painful emotions when exploring strengths" (Clifford, 2011, p.149). Such is the intensity behind this duality of learning through the "coaching relationships at both the interpersonal and cognitive levels that a number of (managers acting as) coaches reported learning from and with their staff; an activity which could be described as upward coaching" (Beattie et al., 2014, p.188).

Downey (2003, p.54) brings all the skills together that make a coach effective which importantly link the four trait based clusters of emotional intelligence discussed earlier, p. Generating understanding and raising awareness to help the player understand themselves (Ideal awareness); Managing self to achieve meaningful results (Self-management); Building relationships to create an inductive environment (Social awareness); and finally understanding organisational context to ensure the client's needs are met (Relationship management).

Relationship to the UK hospitality industry

It is imperative that Managers operating within the hospitality industry effectively interact with both guests and colleagues (Humphrey, 2012; Boss and Sims, 2008; Cote et al 2006). Haver et al (2014, p. 153) construes its importance given the fact they "are exposed to a variety of emotionally stressful workplace events". Indeed, many researchers have asserted that all organisations are emotional places (Armstrong 2000), incubators of emotions (Muchinsky, 2000) or emotional arenas (Fineman, 2000). Since these pertinent characteristics and demands on Hospitality managers consequently require them to "maintain emotionally healthy conditions in service encounters in hotels and continuously create positive outcomes, their ability to control their emotions should be prioritised" (Jung and Yoon, 2012, p.370). One recent Hospitality study measuring productivity differences between employees with high and low emotional awareness highlights this point noting a degree of difference equal to 20 times (Poskey, 2011).

It is interesting to note, however, that "very little empirical research has been taken to explore how training and other interventions can support employees involved in emotional labour or emotion work" (Cox and Patrick, 2012, p.36), with almost no research in the hospitality industry being carried out below executive level as this would usually involve direct control and monitoring (Nielson and Norreklit, 2009; Kim et al., 2012).

Developing emotional intelligence

There have been many calls for a programme of research that specifically develops emotional intelligence within an organizational context (Kunnanatt, 2004, Clarke, 2006, Sigmar et al., 2012). Both Raelin (1998) and Sigmar et al., (2012) attest emotional intelligence training is best accomplished while on the job, a position reinforced by Clarke (2004) who goes further in suggesting the use of planned and unplanned coaching encounters. Quick and Macik-Frey (2004) also identify that deep interpersonal communication between the coach and the person being coached is the key to building positive, supportive relationships in the workplace with Smith et al. (2009, p.163) importantly identifying that "not only does the person being coached benefit from such a relationship, but also the person coaching". Grant (2007, p.258) puts this relationship succinctly, "coaching skills are inextricably related to emotional intelligence... individuals have to be able to regulate their thoughts, feelings and behaviours so they can best achieve their goals".

Indeed, an essential component and process that encourages desired change to occur in a person's thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and behaviours is described by Intentional Change Theory, p. ICT (Smith et al., 2009; Boyatzis et al., 2013). Five conceptions called "Discoveries" (Kolb and Boyatzis, 1970) include an individual's ideal self; recognising the real self; development of options which lead to a learning agenda plan; practice of these new ideals; and finally, a focus on the trusting bonds and relationships to maintain the change process.

Three major components of conceptualisation or the "ideal self' are an ideal image of a desired future; hope that one can attain it; and an inclusion of one's core identity to build a desired image which is then built around a mindfulness goal directed focus. (Boyatzis and Akrivou, 2006). The second stage; describes the "awkward awareness of how he/she is coming across to others" (Boyatzis et al., 2013, p.19) and "areas where the real self and ideal self are inconsistent may be considered gaps" (Smith et al., 2009, p.154). The creation of learning implies considering options by "remaining open to novel action to be taken in the learning process and exhibiting flexibility" (Smith et al., 2009, p.154). The fourth discovery looks at the metamorphosis of experimentation and practice until the learned behaviour is understood and a will is established (Argote, 1999). This is seen to be most effective in environments in which the person feels safe (Kolb and Boyatzis, 1970). It is also important to note that this stage "does not need to involve formal learning such as attending training courses" (Smith et al., 2009, p.156). The final discovery; fostering support and trusting bonds, looks at the relationships we build, sources of feedback, sources of permission and support for learning (Boyatzis et al., 2013). Noticeably, "the relationship between a coach and a client fits this model in that the coach as a significant mirror, holding up a picture of the individual for him or her to see" (Smith et al., 2009, p.157).

Given this learned understanding, this study's supposition is that these discoveries, coherently dovetail into the GROW framework of coaching (as described earlier) thus establishing a foundation on which coaching can be seen to facilitate sustained desired change.

A knowledge of the GROW model is important for coaches, according to Bachkirova and Cox, (2007) because it draws attention to their own development, capacity for reflection and effective interpersonal interaction by taking on more perspectives on situations and understanding of people.

Coaching clearly requires 'reflection in action' which Bagshaw (2014, p.359) describes as "the ability to think about what you are doing whilst you are doing it. This involves asking ourselves what we notice and recognize, as well as the criteria we are using to make judgments". This links very well with the concept of 'Double loop-learning' which (Argyris, 1991) argues is the most effect way of learning, so that to develop, managers need to reflect critically on their own behaviour, identify what it is that needs improving then change how they act. Witherspoon (2014) has already explored this connection with coaching coining the phrase Double-loop coaching. He goes on to state that "coaching requires leaders to reflect critically on their thinking, assess their reactions... and then consider change" (Witherspoon 2014, p.262). Although the coachee can be understood to be discussing their concerns, the coach, or as Schon (1993, p.2) frames this "the enquirer", does not stand outside the problematic situation like a spectator; he is in it and in transaction with it". Double loop learning is grounded in practical experience (Lichtenstein, 2000, p.52) triggered by the uncertainty and anxiety created through a coaching discussion (Witherspoon 2015). This level of deep learning comes from individuals re-examining previous sense-making (Borredon et al., 2011) and breaking with traditional Cartesian philosophy of modernity which required an observer to be separate from action (Berman 1994).

Literary analysis, findings, and conclusions

Research clearly contends the inter-play between emotional intelligence competencies and the behaviours required of a coach in a successful coaching encounter. Clarke (2006, p.460) attests how "reflection and dialogue can... influence the ability to understand, manage and regulate emotions... that are likely to result in a greater enactive mastery of such abilities". The doubleloop joint experienced learnings on emotional intelligence related feelings and behaviours have been shown to be inherent within a coaching discussion where importantly, both parties are submerged in the issue from conception of the problem through to its solution. To link important constructs together it can be seen that the requirements necessary for a coaching relationship (Passmore, 2007) as described earlier; dovetail into the GROW methodological approach (Whitmore, 2003); which unites with intentional change theory (Smith et al. 2009) to embrace an improvement in emotional intelligence Given this special relationship, this research depicts a model through analysis of research undertaken which 'takes a view' of the connections linking a coach's awareness and practice of the GROW coaching model to observe developmental improvements in emotional intelligence through a conceptual lens of learning and reflection.

Research methodology

A mixed methods bivariate analysis was carried out to determine both structured and semistructured questionnaire findings which determine the frequency of coaching encounters to the causality of emotional intelligence individual improvements to an economic significant level (Echambadi et al., 2006, p.1811). Causality is provided in line with academic scrutiny through robust checks that "(1) reject reverse causality, (2) demonstrate the elimination of omitted variable bias and (3) ensure that the correlations are robust to different specifications and samples" (Echambadi et al., 2006, p.1804). Notably; keeping all variables constant with both groups sharing identical political, economic, sociological, technological, legal, ethical, and demographic environments (Collins 2014); with no singled out organisational development activity undertaken by any one individual or group; and all information gleaned from a triangulated source of participants.

Research groups

Groves et al (2006, p.226) and Chapman (2004) indicate that previous emotional intelligence studies typically lack a control group; fail to control for industry specifics; measure effects at different time periods; or use diagnostic or training material devoid of emotional content. Given this criticism, the population of this study is drawn from a triangulation of UK based hospitality firms. Three differing UK based organisations were selected to avoid any single cultural bias (Webb et al., 1966). The first of these is the group which received coaching intervention; herein referred to as the ''focus group' (consisting of 28 Junior Managers) The second group of managers, operating within the same daily cultural industry and specific company considerations only without any coaching intervention; are herein referred to as the 'controlgroup'. (Consisting of 14 Junior Managers). For future statistical comparative analysis, the combined focus group candidates' age profile averaged an arithmetic mean of 29 years with 4 years' experience within the hospitality industry. The male to female makeup of the group was 41% / 59% respectively. The control group's combined average age profile was 31 years with 5 years' experience within the same industry and comprised of 33% to 67% female to male mix.

The focus group of each organisation is set at a numerical ratio of 2:1 to the control group. This is set in response to the pool of candidates available; return on investment negotiated with each donor site; and a variation co-efficient to aid statistical evaluation to save on both cost and time as exact "matching... is not an essential part of case control designs" (Forgues, 2012, p.271).

Coaching day training material and delivery

Training material was forged together from a medley of blue chip service industry organisations which use coaching development day courses and adopted GROW as a preferred coaching model. The Performance coaching development day was piloted for junior management audience suitability within two international companies 'Dixons Retail' and 'Gala Bingo' The researchers feedback from each of these pilot days went to improve the three respective coaching development days to ensure a suitable mix of practical and theoretical material to enable the GROW model to be fully understood. In addition to this, further recommended material (McLeod, 2003) was added to check the facilitating mindset required of a coach was fully understood and practiced by every candidate in an open and trusting environment. Importantly, the coaching day for each of the three occasions was conducted by the researcher eliminating many of the biases different trainers would have presented (Bryman and Bell, 2015). The training coaching development day material has centred on 'four communication pillars' (Neale et al., 2009, p.138) of emotional intelligence coaching skills; viz. Listening, Questioning, Empathy and Rapport to effectively equip each coach with the intrapersonal and interpersonal abilities required (Wall 2007, p.30). Each control group participant engaged in three practical GROW coaching sessions as both the coach and coachee. Immediate feedback from both the researcher and coachee was engaged in with a view to improving the coaching conversation which took place. Generalized group feedback was given following each session to notice underlying improvements and learning opportunities. Coaching couples were kept consistent throughout the day to encourage social interaction and familiarity and thereby contribute to the honesty and openness of the feedback given by coachees' and acceptance of it from the coach's perspective.

Self-reported questionnaire

Following an extensive literary review analysis this study has adopted the ESCI trait based measurement of emotional intelligence Although, much scholarly debate still favours the MSCEIT scientific emotional intelligence approach (Murphy and Sideman, 2006) and call for the Goleman camp to give up the label of emotional intelligence the ESCI was still chosen for its view of emotional intelligence as a wide range of competencies and skills to drive managerial performance in the work place as "it is this model that is often used to inform leadership competency frameworks and thus leadership development." (Chapman, 2009). Its application to service Industry commerce, is also supported by Martinez, (1997, p.72) who notes how the Goleman based model offers "an array of non-cognitive skills, capabilities and competencies that influence a person's ability to cope with environmental demands and pressures" all too synonymous with the Hospitality Industry.

Following the submission of a dissertation proposal to the Hay Group this research study was accredited with an academic license to use ESCI assessment materials which carry internal consistency reliability scores of .8 based on over 160,000 emotional intelligence assessments that have been conducted over 3000 clients (Hay Group, 2011, p.8).The ESCI, as described by the Hay group (2006, p.2), "is a 360-degree tool designed to assess the emotional and social competences of individuals and organizations" based on emotional competencies identified by Daniel Goleman, Richard Boyatzis and Hay/McBer's generic competency dictionary. ESCI measurement is based upon 68 questions set against 12 competency scales and framed within four distinct clusters of measurement.

Semi structured questionnaire

To comprehend trigger points, which highlight the motivation of candidates to practice coaching and obtain vital information on the adoption of coaching as a management tool, a semi structured telephone questionnaire was conducted. Interestingly, three key measures are to be understood viz; which part of the course was found to be most, and least interesting; which part was most and least useful; and the degree to which coaching was practiced within the assessed time continuum.

Data collection and analysis techniques

As recommended in previous research (Grant, 2010, p.149) this investigation utilises a case study of pre-post design. The first round of ESCI tests for both the focus group and control group was completed a week prior to the coaching course being delivered with each questionnaire gathered up before attendance on the day. Since Newman (2015, p.35) highlights studies which show that it takes 21 to 27 days of continual "focused repeated practice so a new skill becomes grounded in our neural pathways" this research allowed a recommended four months to progress (Grant 2010, p.73) before a second identical questionnaire was completed which followed the same process with the same respondents in the first test. 20 Junior Manager responses (reduced from 28) were gleaned from the focus group, while 9 Junior Manager responses (reduced from 14) were obtained from the control group, resulting from 10 cases of labour turnover; 1 absence due to sickness and 2 spoiled questionnaire results. Written ethical permissions were gathered from all individual respondents and companies involved with the University of Leicester providing final consent for the study to continue.

Analysis and results

For statistical analysis and significance of emotional intelligence development variations deltas of performance are set at the conventional p=<0.05 level (Fisher, 1934) with null hypothesis accepted or rejected accordingly. Findings are presented for statistical Range, Median (Mdn=), Mean (M=), and Standard Deviation (SD=) terms for reasons of expositional clarity, comparison purposes across competencies and to aid future research linkage. Summarised cluster results can be seen below.

Self-awareness as a cluster of EI mirrors the results of competency one as it is made up from just one competency area. It clearly indicates that the 'self-awareness cluster' as a competency can be consistently improved by coaching thus proving this component of H1.

The cluster 'self-management' highlights a significant delta of performance between the focus and control group of M=.31 and M= -0.02 points respectively. This also represents a mean growth of 9.03% in the performance between both groups. Median variation by candidate for the focus group (Mdn=.32) varies significantly in comparison to the control group which remains static (Mdn= -.01). Focus group SD= .30 inconsistency compares poorly with the relative stability of control group averages (SD= .18). As the P value test statistic (P=0.0013) is beyond the assigned cut off value, the results are statistically significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected which clearly indicates that 'self-management' as a cluster can be consistently improved by coaching thus proving this component of Hi.

Social awareness as a cluster can clearly be seen to show a .45 point improvement between the focus and control group of M= -.41 and M= -.04 points respectively. This also represents a mean growth of 11.97% in the performance between both groups; the highest of each cluster. Median variation by candidate for the focus group (Mdn= .38) drops a little lower than the control group because of one candidate's results. Control group results almost match the mean (Mdn= .07). Focus group SD= .28 inconsistency compares relatively stable with that of the control group average (SD= .20). As the P value test statistic (P=0.00016) is beyond the assigned cut off value, the results are statistically significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected which clearly indicates that 'social awareness' as a competency can be consistently improved by coaching thus proving this component of Hi.

Relationship management as a cluster can clearly be seen to show a .4 emotional intelligence improvement between the focus and control group of M=.43 and M=0.034 points respectively. This also represents a mean growth of 11.12% in the performance between both groups. Median variation by candidate for the focus group is Mdn= .43. Control group results match the mean almost precisely (Mdn= .01). Focus group SD= .18 consistency compares relatively like control group averages (SD= .13). As the P value test statistic (P=0.00000015) is beyond the assigned cut off value, the results are statistically significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected which clearly indicates that the cluster 'relationship management' can be consistently improved by coaching thus proving this component of H1.

The summation of all the above clusters derives a final finding that a coaching awareness and practice enhances total emotional intelligence improvement points by .4 calculation points (11.23%). This is borne out through focus group performances (M=.40) and control group performances (M= -0.1). Median variation by candidate for the focus group is .43 sharing similar mean stability with control group findings of -0.01. Focus group consistency (SD= .18) compares relatively similarly to control group averages (SD= .13). As the P value test statistic (P=0.0000001) is beyond the assigned cut off value, the results are statistically significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected which clearly indicates that total emotional intelligence can be consistently improved by coaching thus proving in total H1.

Semi-structured interview findings

Findings gleaned using the semi-structured telephone questionnaire to ascertain the number of coaching encounters each candidate completed are given below.

Since this cluster is represented by only one of the twelve sub competency areas the findings here replicate those shown in competency one.

Self-management as a cluster can be seen to require industry post course coaching experience to derive any benefit in emotional intelligence demonstrated by 9.51% increase between non adopters and those in the low group. Trend line analyses see this relatively flat line or improve once the high mean average is taken into consideration. The P value significance value between 'none' and 'high' groups is P=0.051 which gives a border line result. For reasons of statistical analysis this study classifies this as inconclusive.

'Social awareness' as an emotional intelligence competence cluster can be seen to improve significantly following the course. After this point low and medium users of coaching would remain consistent with only high group candidates seeing a noticeable increase. Comparing 'none' group candidate findings with 'high' group findings the P value test statistic is calculated as P=0.58. As the test statistic is not beyond the assigned cut-off value, the results are not statistically significant.

The trend line can clearly be seen to follow exponential growth with coaching practice. Comparing 'none' group candidate findings with 'high' group findings the P value test statistic is calculated as P=0.035. As the P value test statistic is beyond the assigned cut off value, the results are statistically significant. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected and we can conclude increased coaching regularity indicates incremental emotional intelligence growth in this area thus supporting this component of H2.

Following the trend line analysis, growth in emotional intelligence competence can be seen to exponentially increase slightly with coaching practice. Comparing 'none' group candidate findings with 'high' group findings the P value test statistic is calculated as P=0.088. As the test statistic is not beyond the assigned cut-off value, the results are not statistically significant overall.

Summary analysis

Definitions, theories, and empirical research has been reviewed and evidence for the interdependencies which link an awareness, understanding and practice of coaching tools to the developmental effect on a UK Hospitality Industry Junior Managers emotional intelligence 'P tests' (Fisher 1934) were used to determine the significance behind each Hypothesis. This research goes further than those published by Grant (2007); Hwang et al. (2013); and Clarke (2006) with the inclusion of a non-training control group and secondly by examining all 12 sub competencies of the ESCI (version 3); then four distinct ability areas; followed by total combined overall emotional intelligence score to determine set research Hypothesis conclusions In respect of H1, eleven of the twelve sub competencies were seen to show results to be statistically significant thereby rejecting the null hypothesis concluding an enhancement of emotional intelligence capability in all areas excluding that of 'Achievement Orientation'. Conclusive evidence of this effect is seen with each cluster being significantly improved upon in comparison to the control group findings; viz. Self-Awareness (P=.002); Self-Management (P=.0013); Social Awareness (P=.00016); and Relationship Management (P=.00000015). Total emotional intelligence, importantly, can be seen to carry the most significance (P=.0000001). This conclusion reinforces suggestions made by Grant (2007); Wall (2007); and Neale et al. (2009) that training in coaching skills can positively impact development in emotional intelligence and wider studies which show that a variety of training programmes can enhance levels of emotional intelligence (Slaski and Cartwright, 2003; Sadri, 2011).

In respect of H2 findings these clearly point to only three out of twelve competencies (25%) which significantly improve emotional intelligence when based upon the mean difference between not carrying out any coaching encounters to those who coached ten or more times over a 4-month period. These competencies were Positive outlook, Conflict Management and interestingly Coach and Mentor. It can be concluded, therefore, that a number of emotional intelligence development tools used within business can be substituted or removed in favour of an on-going coaching routine. Only one of four clusters, 'Relationship Management' (P=.035) show results to be statistically significant rejecting the null hypothesis and concluding an enhancement of emotional intelligence development in this area. The greatest increase in total emotional intelligence is realised when coaching for 10 or more occurrences and does still command a delta in mean average performance of 9.69% in comparison to no coaching undertaken which would call for further empirical research given this wide variance.

Feedback from Candidates on what items was found to be most useful and of interest following the course was primarily the GROW coaching model. Other models and philosophies carried out during the coaching Development day were seen to emphasise the environment the GROW model is managed within, which is identified by Kauffman et al. (2010, p.162) as "an egalitarian approach in which coaches engage in active listening, powerful questioning, designing actions, goal setting and managing accountability." Ramifications of this awareness and increased emotional intelligence competency, importantly, also crosses organizational borders to "affect employees' personal lives as well, bringing about improvements in areas such as physical and mental health, overall well-being and social support (Meisler, 2013, p.288).

Conclusion

To conclude, this is the first study of its kind to show clear evidence relating coaching awareness and practice, within a conventional one day classroom environment, to the incremental benefit of all facets of emotional intelligence scores of Hospitality junior management teams in the UK. Incremental development in this intelligence, augmented in increases of coaching frequency, has only proved successful with regards to relationship management with a recommendation for further testing to show a link to an improvement in self-management. Put succinctly, performance coaching can contribute to the development of an individual's emotional intelligence

Findings were constructed to make results clear and unambiguous, given the empirical paucity of research within the field, and to encourage further studies to take concepts and theories forward for comparison across other industrial, cultural, and national identities. The analytical relevance to the Hospitality Industry is made even more important where greater levels of emotional intelligence are seen to be more applicable within trades involving high levels of emotional labour (e.g. Wong and Law 2002; Brotheridge and Lee, 2003).

The central premise of this study in line with Huang and Hsieh (2015) assertion is that organizational leaders and academics alike should recognise the importance of the coaching role and incorporate it as a valuable component to the development of individual emotional intelligence performance and thereby increase levels of psychological empowerment among junior management. Thus, organisations should encourage coaching awareness development programmes to attain greater levels of individual emotional intelligence amongst its Junior Management teams and consequentially positively expand the accessible leadership talent pool for future generations.

Theoretical implications

Research findings in this study can be seen to use Passmore's (2007) coaching conditions to instruct Junior Hospitality Management candidates in the GROW coaching model (Whitmore, 2003) and go on to discover, through Intentional Change Theory (Boyatzis et al. 2013) and Double Loop Learning (Argyris 1991), statistically significant developments in increasing personal emotional intelligence scores (as seen in Fig 2). The detailed competency level analysis which has taken place, encompassing many models and theories, lends itself ideally to further scholarly scrutiny.

Industry findings and limitations

Clear recommendations for the Hospitality Industry is to conduct coaching awareness courses using the GROW coaching model for all junior management role positions. Encouragement should also be given to develop a culture which embraces the practice and reliance of coaching workshops with other techniques as part of individual personal development plans. This reinforces previous research which shows leadership can be significantly enhanced over relatively short periods of time (Walumba and Wernsing, 2013; Mackie, 2014).

With this knowledge, Trainers and Practitioners alike can cite this research evidence to support the benefits of instilling managers with a coaching awareness and the ongoing professional support required to continue emotional intelligence development. These findings then become a valuable tool when marketing coaching development packages to develop in-house junior management teams.

Findings are limited to a single industry, centred upon a specific cultural national identity, and therefore a generalising caution (Beattie et al., 2014; Passmore, 2009) should be exercised in matching conclusions of this case study to other business sectors.

A further limitation may be voiced through the method of self-reported questionnaires as these are easier to distort than performance based measures (Bracket et al 2006). This downside was mitigated through adopting an industry lead and rigorously tested model (Hay Group; 2011) which lessens candidate's self-opinion with that of other observant interested parties.

Although the size of the study was smaller than intended, it is recommended that similar studies of this nature should focus on more diverse Hospitality firms and include greater numbers of candidates to strengthen these research conclusions.

Direction for future research

Future research might consider the scope of the manager as a coach setting and build a more extensive longitudinal research design to rule out common method bias and allow for more recommended (Grant 2010) definitive causal conclusions to be drawn over several years. This research, along with others (Beattie et al 2014), calls for the role of technology and alternative use of distance learning to deliver coaching awareness to candidates to be reviewed for associated cost benefits for organisations and to see if similar emotional intelligence improvements are witnessed.

Additionally, this research opens the doors to different theory based emotional intelligence methodologies to provide comparative data on the effectiveness of other emotional intelligence assessment measures to other coaching models to determine the best fit.

This study examines junior management positions exclusively and, therefore, more executive coaching programmes may derive alternative conclusions.

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