Pornography Use: Its Impact On Heterosexual Men's Lives & Romantic Relationship

Abstract

The effect of pornography use on heterosexual men 's levels of investment in their romantic relationship was investigated in this study. 180 males aged 18 - 29 years responded to the Pornography Use Scale, Pornography Consumption Effect Scale (PCES), and Investment Model Scale. Correlation analyses showed that frequency of pornography use was positively related to problematic use of pornography (r= .59, p<.01), and self-perceived overall negative effects of pornography consumption (r= .22, p< .01), but negatively associated with self-perceived overall positive effects of pornography consumption (r= -.31, p<.01). Linear regression analyses demonstrated that frequency of pornography use lowered satisfaction levels (R2=.052, F(I, 178) = 10.73, β= -.238, p<.01), investment size (R2=.039, F(1, 178) = 8.245, β= -.210, p<.01) and commitment levels (R2=.032, F(1, 178) = 6.926, β= -.194, p<.05), but heightened the quality of alternatives (R2=.130, F(1, 178) = 27.832, β= .368, p<.01) of men in their romantic relationships.

Headnote

Abstract

The effect of pornography use on heterosexual men 's levels of investment in their romantic relationship was investigated in this study. 180 males aged 18 - 29 years responded to the Pornography Use Scale, Pornography Consumption Effect Scale (PCES), and Investment Model Scale. Correlation analyses showed that frequency of pornography use was positively related to problematic use of pornography (r= .59, p<.01), and self-perceived overall negative effects of pornography consumption (r= .22, p< .01), but negatively associated with self-perceived overall positive effects of pornography consumption (r= -.31, p<.01). Linear regression analyses demonstrated that frequency of pornography use lowered satisfaction levels (R2=.052, F(I, 178) = 10.73, β= -.238, p<.01), investment size (R2=.039, F(1, 178) = 8.245, β= -.210, p<.01) and commitment levels (R2=.032, F(1, 178) = 6.926, β= -.194, p<.05), but heightened the quality of alternatives (R2=.130, F(1, 178) = 27.832, β= .368, p<.01) of men in their romantic relationships.

Keywords: Pornography; Intimate Relationships.

Introduction

Romantic relationships play a vital role in adult lives. Romantic partners who are satisfied in their relationship are perceived as being emotionally and physically healthy (Berscheid, 1999), since when both partners contribute to their romantic relationship, they can satisfy vital needs of belonging and intimacy (Brehm et al., 2007). However, all close relationships are subjected to periods of stress and conflict (Brehm et al., 2007). Such a situation may arise in the romantic relationship when one's partner is using pornography. As a consequence, pornography use can have a negative impact on both the user and his partner (Maltz & Maltz, 2006; Manning, 2006). Some problems include addiction, isolation, distorted beliefs and perceptions about relationships and sexuality, negative feelings about themselves and so on (Maltz & Maltz, 2006; Manning, 2006).

With the advent of new technologies, it has become easier for people to gain access to pornography. People can easily view pornography through a variety of media including adult magazines, books, films and online pornographic websites such as PornoTube, RedTube, YouPorn and so on. According to Ropelato (2007a), a Utah-based anti-pornography crusader and content filtering software promoter, about 72 million individuals view pornography on the internet around the world. The pornography industry has an annual income of around $13 billion dollars in the United States only and it made greater profits than Microsoft, Google, Amazon, eBay, Yahoo!, Apple, Netflix and EarthLink combined (Ropelato, 2007b). Cooper (1998) stated that around 9% million users of the internet spend over 11 hours a week searching for pornographic material. There are also around 28,258 internet pornography users every second (Eberstadt, 2009). Stack, Wasserman & Kern (2004) remarked that the number of pornographic websites had risen from around 900 in 1997 to 20,000- 30,000 in 1998. With widespread use of pornography, one must question how pornography has an impact on individuals, especially men who are considered to be its main consumers (Ropelato, 2007a).

Pornography

Researchers face some challenges to define pornography since the term varies according to a number of factors such as culture, religion and sexual orientation. Numerous dictionaries and encyclopedias consistently define pornography as the primary aim to arouse sexual desire. Malamuth (1993) describes pornography as "sexually explicit media designed primarily to arouse the audience sexually" (p.564). Popović (2011a) adds that the term pornography "has different meanings, depending on cultural and individuals' context, and includes various types of media/presentation (e.g., sexstories, visual pornography, sex-chats) and content (e.g. straight, group, gay, sado-masochism)" (p.353).

Impact Of Pornography Use On Individuals

Emerging adults are the highest consumer of pornography (Buzzell, 2005). This is due to the advanced use of technology and access to digital devices (Cooper et al., 2000). Daneback, Mansson & Ross (2012) surveyed 1913 Swedish young adults to identify the reasons males are more likely to consume pornography. The reasons identified were (a) sexual excitement (30%), (b) sexual satisfaction (29%), (c) convenience (20%), (d) curiosity (19%) and (e) anonymity (16%). Moreover, Morgan (2011) pointed out that boys begin consuming pornography when they are around 12 years of age while girls do so when they are around 15 years of age.

Omar (2012) proposed that male adolescents' consumption of pornography comes from a background of parental separation, staying in sexualized atmosphere and a history of childhood sufferings. On the other hand, Buzzell (2005) demonstrated that individuals with high levels of education and revenue consume pornography to a larger extent than those with lower levels of these.

Pornography use can have a huge impact on an individuals' personal life. For instance, a research conducted by Omori et al. (2011) showed that students viewing pornography expressed more positive attitudes towards extramarital sex. Similarly, men who consume high amounts of pornography are more likely to have greater levels of depression (Bridges & Morokoff, 2011) and they may be more likely to be sexually aggressive (Donnerstein & Linz, 1998; Malamuth, Addison & Koss, 2000). Social researchers have proposed that watching pornography can result in alteration of attitudes in males (Check, 1992; Russell, 1993; Russell & Trocki, 1993; Zillmann & Bryant, 1988). Maddox, Rhoades & Markman (2009) noticed that males consume pornography more regularly than women for a variety of reasons such as masturbation purposes (Morgan, 2011; Shaughnessy, Byers & Walsh, 2011) and for sexual arousal (Flood, 2009). Loftus (2002) further mentioned that men considered pornography to be a relaxant and went for naps after watching it. Furthermore, Betzold (1990) claimed that pornography provides men with the expectations that all women can act like porn actresses. Moreover, research has confirmed that male use of pornography results in aggressive attitudes and aggression towards women (Hald, Malamuth & Yuen, 2010).

Empirical researchers assert that individuals use pornography to avoid negative emotions or relationships that seem troublesome to them (Adams & Robinson, 2001; Reid & Wooley, 2006; Reid et al., 2011). Hence, investigators and practitioners reveal that excessive pornography use can be seen as addiction (Barak & King, 2000; Griffiths, 2001; Meerkerk, Van Den Eijnden & Garretsen, 2006), an impulse control disorder (Shapira et al., 2003; Young, 2005) or a paraphilic disorder (Kafka, 2001; Kalman, 2008). Furthermore, King (2003) advanced that pornography consumption can lead to financial crisis since the user is spending huge amounts of money to buy the latest videos on pornography. Surprisingly, Goldberg (1998) reported that viewing pornography was the fourth most visited category of internet websites while individuals were at work. Similarly, Cooper et al. (1999) demonstrated that males often used the office computer to watch pornography, thereby jeopardizing their jobs.

Additionally, men and women differ in the types of pornography they view. Men prefer watching pornography consisting of vaginal or anal penetration, oral sex and group sex as well as pornography that is "male- centric" since they portray the males as having power over their female partner (Arakawa, Flanders & Hatfield, 2012; Paul & Shim, 2008). In contrast, females prefer materials portraying nudity that does not contain genitals or sexual penetration (Janssen, Carpenter & Graham, 2003; Weinberg et al., 2010). Furthermore, it was shown in an interview based study that women who view pornography reported feeling guilty or uneasy afterwards (Ciclitira, 2002). In contrast, Hardy's (2004) interview based study revealed that male use of pornography was accepted and expected. It was further stipulated that an increased exposure to pornography in males leads to early sexual activity, more tolerance towards casual sex and risky sexual behaviors such as anal sex, having sex with multiple partners and using drugs or alcohol during sexual intercourse (Braun-Courville & Rojas, 2009; Brown & L'Engle, 2009; Peter &Valkenburg, 2007). Likewise, Crossman (1995) asserted that men viewing violent pornography are expected to be engaged in physically forced sex with their romantic partner. Additionally, Malamuth, Hald & Koss (2012)'s study revealed that pornography consumption led men to accept violence and rape against women. However, surprisingly, women, far more than men, are likely to act out their behaviors in real life, such as having multiple partners, casual sex, or affairs (Ropelato, 2007b).

Effect Of Pornography Use On Romantic Relationship

The studies described above all highlight pornography consumption and its effect on the individual especially males. However, few researches have investigated the impact of pornography use on the user's relationships. In the recent years, some scholars have studied the negative effects (Bridges, Bergner & Hesson-McInnis, 2003; Bridges & Morokoff, 2011; Maddox et al., 2009; Poulsen, Busby & Galovan, 2012) and positive (Daneback, Traeen & Mansson, 2008; Grov et al., 2011) outcomes of pornography use among romantic partners. For instance, Albright (2008) argued that males who view pornography, perceive their partner's body negatively. Consequently, they are less satisfied in their sexual relationship with their partner (Maddox et al., 2009; Yucel & Gassanov, 2010) and are likely to be attracted towards relationships alternatives (Stack, Wasserman & Kern, 2004). Correspondingly, an article by Naomi Wolf (2003) revealed that on American university campuses, boyfriends expect their girlfriends to act like porn stars during their sexual relationships. In addition to this, partners of chronic pornography users report feeling betrayed, a decline in the intimacy and sexual activities, and feel that their partners no longer understand them and wonder about their partner's love for them (Bergner & Bridges, 2002). In particular, when women came to know about their partner's use of pornography, they perceived their significant other as being less decent and more egocentric and less reliable (Bridges, Bergner & Hesson-McInnis, 2003). Moreover, it was strongly argued that pornography use is correlated with higher rates of infidelity, less love and trust and perceiving one's marriage as a burden (Henline, Lamke, & Howard, 2007; Schneider, 2000; Stack, Wasserman & Kern, 2004; Zillmann & Bryant, 1988). In addition to this, qualitative research has revealed that male pornography use can result in communication deterioration (Schneider & Schneider, 1996). And Manning's (2006) interviews with matrimonial lawyers revealed that 56% of divorce cases are due to one partner being fixated on pornography.

Rusbult's (1980, 1983) Investment Model

Rusbult's (1980, 1983) Investment Model was grounded from Interdependence Theory (Thibaut & Kelley, 1959) to enlighten reasons on people's continuance to unsatisfying relationships (Rusbult, Agneww & Arriaga, 2012). According to the Investment model, commitment is considered to be the main component and is defined as involving a psychological state reflecting one's attachment to and dependence on a partner, combined with the desire to maintain relationship over time (Rusbult & Buunk, 1993). Within Rusbult's (1980, 1983) Investment Model, commitment is influenced by three independent factors: satisfaction, investment size and quality of alternatives (Rusbult, 1983; Rusbult, Martz & Agnew, 1998).

Firstly, satisfaction is defined as positivity of affect or attraction to one's relationship (Rusbult, 1983). Secondly, investment size can be defined as the resources that people invested in their relationship and they might lose it if their relationship was to end (Rusbult, 1983). Investment can be both tangible (e.g., exchanging gifts with a romantic partner) and intangible such as spending time and putting efforts on one's relationship (Goodfriend & Agnew, 2008). Finally, quality of alternatives refers to the attractiveness outside the relationship (Rusbult, Martz & Agnew, 1998). It may lead to the individual spending more time with friends or alone or dating others (Rusbult, Martz & Agnew, 1998). If the individual perceives that the alternative will be beneficial to him, he will move towards the alternative and away from his current relationship (Rusbult, Martz & Agnew, 1998). For instance, if an individual is dissatisfied in their relationship, they will prefer to spend time with friends or doing their leisure work as a means to positive alternatives. Hence, greater commitment to a relationship results from greater satisfaction, fewer alternatives and more investment in the relationship (Rusbult, Agnew & Arriaga, 2012; Rusbult, Martz & Agnew, 1998).

It has been empirically demonstrated in Investment Model that commitment is positively related to satisfaction level and investment size but negatively linked to quality of alternatives (Rusbult, Martz & Agnew, 1998). The investment model has been employed in several researches especially in different types of relationships such as dating, marriages, friendships (Rusbult, 1983; Rusbult & Farrell, 1983). A longitudinal study done by Rusbult (1983) with heterosexual dating relationships supported the view that higher rewards, lower alternatives and increased investment lead to higher levels of satisfaction and commitment. Similarly, Duffy & Rusbult's (1986) study showed that greater satisfaction is correlated with high rewards and lower costs while high level of commitment is linked to greater satisfaction and investment and poor alternatives. Additionally, committed people are inclined to behave in ways that enhance relationship continuance. Rusbult, Drigotas & Verette (1994) mention that committed individuals are more dependent in their relationship, are more attached to their partner and have a long-lasting intention to continue their relationship. On top of that, they also sacrifice their likings for the sake of their partner's interest (Powell & Van Vugt, 2003; Agnew et al., 1998; Rusbult, Martz & Agnew, 1998) and can easily pardon their partner's disloyalty (Cann & Baucom, 2004; Finkel et al., 2002). Moreover, individuals with high levels of commitment perceive their relationship to be the best and idealize their partner (Gagné & Lydon, 2003).

This study aimed to investigate how frequency of porn use is related to self-perceived overall effect of pornography consumption, and problematic use of pornography. Additionally, it attempted to test whether frequency of pornography use predicts level of satisfaction, level of quality of alternatives, level of investment size and level of commitment. More specifically it aimed to test the following hypotheses:

H1: There will be a significant correlation between frequency of pornography use and selfperceived overall (positive and negative) effects of pornography consumption and problematic use of pornography.

a) Frequency of pornography use will be negatively correlated with self-perceived overall positive effects of pornography consumption.

b) Frequency of pornography use will be positively correlated with self-perceived overall negative effects of pornography consumption.

c) Frequency of pornography use will be positively correlated with problematic use of pornography.

H2: Frequency of pornography use will significantly predict each of the variables of the Investment Model

a) Frequency of pornography use will predict lowered levels of satisfaction.

b) Frequency of pornography use will predict decreased levels of investment.

c) Frequency of pornography will predict diminished levels of commitment.

d) Frequency of pornography use will predict heightened quality of alternatives.

The next section will describe the methodology used in this study, after which the data analyses and results will be presented. The last section will present an in-depth discussion of the findings and the concluding remarks will end this paper.

Methodology

This methodology section will provide information with regards to the study. Details with regards to the participants, their demographic information, the measures used in this study as well as the procedure for conducting this research will be described.

Sample

180 heterosexual males with age ranging from 18 years to 29 years took part in this study. Participants were recruited through convenience sampling, based on their willingness to take part in the research. The maximum age limit of participants was restricted to 29 years because older participants were not willing to participate when they were approached about the study.

37% of participants were in the 21-23 years age group, 26% were in the 24-26 years age group, 20% were in the 27-29 years age group, and 17% were in the 18-20 years age group.

Relationship length of participants was ranged from 3 months to +3 years. 27% of relationship duration was between 1-2 years, 21% was between 6-12 months, 20% were more than 3 years, 19% were between 2-3 years, and 13% was between 3-6 months.

The ethnicities of participants were Hindus (50%), others (25%) [Chinese, Marati, Telegu or Tamil], Muslims (14%), and Creole (11%).

54% participants were sexually active whilst 46% of participants were not sexually active.

Profession of Participants

The sample ranged from college students (8%) to part-time university students (13%) and fulltime university students (39%) to unemployed (6%) and employed men (34%).

Relationship Status of Participants

38% of the men were dating exclusively, 25% were engaged, 23% were dating casually, 7 % were dating online, 4% were married, and 3% were cohabiting.

Measures

The questionnaire consisted of four sections:

1. Demographic Variables

2. Pornography Consumption Effect scale (PCES)

3. Frequency of pornography use and problematic pornography subscales

4. Investment Model Scale (IMS)

Section 1: Demographic Variables

The demographic section was made up of six questions related to age, ethnicity, profession, relationship length, relationship status and sexual activity.

Section 2: Pornography Consumption Effect scale (PCES)

The Pornography Consumption Effect Scale (PCES; Hald & Malamuth, 2008) is a 47 item scale to assess perceived effect of pornography consumption across 5 domains: Sex Life (SL), Life in general (LG), Attitudes towards sex (ATS), Perception of and attitudes towards the opposite gender (PATOG) and Sexual knowledge (SK). The PCES had two effect scales, the Positive Effect Dimension (PED) (a = .9) and Negative Effect Dimension (NED) (a = .85) each measuring the overall positive and negative perceived effect of pornography use. The PCES measured the effect pornography caused in 5 areas in an individual's life. The questions were:

* "Overall, has pornography consumption been a negative supplement to your sex life (SL)?"

* "Overall, has pornography consumption had a harmful effect on your life (LG)?"

* "Has pornography consumption made you less tolerant towards sex (ATS)?"

* "Has pornography consumption adversely affected your views of the opposite gender (PATOG)?"

* "Has pornography consumption taught you new sexual techniques (SK)?"

In the current study, the scales were changed to a 7-point scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree). The PCES is measured by averaging the scores for the self-perceived overall positive and negative effects dimension of pornography consumption separately.

Section 3: Pornography Use scale

Pornography Use Scale (PUS) was a 14 items scale created by Szymanski & StewartRichardson (2014). Pornography use scale consisted of items evaluating frequency of pornography use and problematic use of pornography. The items in the scales included questions such as:

* How frequently do you view pornography via adult magazines (0 = none to 5 = everyday or almost every day).

* How frequently do you view pornography via adult videos, movies or films (0 = none to 5 = everyday or almost every day).

The Frequency of Pornography Use (a = .85) was assessed through the most popular types of pornography viewing such as DVDs/ Videos, the internet and magazines (Cooper, Delmonico & Burg, 2000; Ropelato, 2007a) and across a variety of time frame (e.g., viewing time per day, per week or per month).

The Problematic Pornography Subscale (a = .83) was used to estimate whether the amount of use of pornography becomes a problem to oneself or to others and results in secondary problems (e.g., life and relationship problems) associated with pornography use. Items in the scales consisted of questions such as:

* I use sexually explicit materials (including online, magazines. DVD/Videos) more than I would like to

* My use of pornography (including online, magazines, DVD/Videos) has interfered with certain aspects of my life.

In the current study, the responses were measured on a scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree).

Section 4: Investment Model Scale (IMS)

The Investment Model Scale (IMS) is used to assess the relationship quality and functioning (Rusbult, Martz & Agnew, 1998). The IMS is divided into four subscales namely the level of satisfaction, level of quality of alternatives, level of investment size and level of commitment. The participants were asked to rate themselves on their current relationship. Participants responded on a 7- point scale from 1 (Strongly disagree) to 7 (Strongly agree).

* Satisfaction level (a = .97) measures the level to which individuals are satisfied and their needs are fulfilled in the relationship. The items are "My partner fulfills my needs for intimacy (sharing personal thoughts, secrets, etc.)" and "I feel satisfied with our relationship" and so on.

* Quality of alternatives (a = .93) measures the individual's perceptions on having desirable outcomes outside their current relationship. Item in this scale is "If I weren't dating my partner, I would do fine- I would find another appealing person to date".

* Investment size (a = .91) assesses the extent to which an individual feels that he has invested in his current relationship and the problems that may arise (due to the investment) if the relationship were to cease (e.g., - I have put a great deal into our relationship that I would lose if the relationship were to end).

* Commitment level (a = .87) determines an individual's level of commitment to his current relationship. Item in this subscale includes "I feel very attached to our relationship- very strongly linked to my partner".

The IMS was scored by averaging all the scores in each subscale separately.

Pilot Test

A short face-to-face pilot test was conducted with 7 participants in order to identify which items on the questionnaire were not clear to them and to consequently remedy all the unclear items. The pilot survey was also done to see whether the respondents were comfortable answering intimate questions such as "Your consumption of pornography has taught you new sexual techniques" and "Taken together, how frequently do you view pornographic materials?" Feedback was received from 4 participants saying that they were quite hesitant responding to these questions. Hence, it was decided that the questionnaire would be posted online so as to make respondents feel more comfortable.

Procedure

The study used a cross-sectional design where participants were asked to respond to an online questionnaire, containing all the above measures, created on Google Forms. The questionnaire took about 30 minutes to answer. The questionnaire was posted on social network such as Facebook. This is a suitable method for data collection since it is cheap, efficient and highly confidential. The link of the online survey was circulated among colleagues and peers from different universities in Mauritius, in different workplaces as well as in different colleges so that respondents, who were interested in participating, could easily get access to it. A consent form was included before the demographic questions so that the participants could understand the purpose of the research, were aware of their right to withdraw from the study, and were assured of the confidentiality and anonymity of their responses. At the end of the questionnaire, participants were thanked for their time and the contact details of the researchers were provided should they have any queries.

Data Analyses & Results

This chapter will describe the data analyses, namely descriptive statistics, correlations, and linear regressions, which were conducted for this study. Additionally, the results from these analyses will be described and interpreted.

All measures, except Frequency of Pornography Use scale, were rated on a 7- point Likert scale as follows: strongly disagree = 1, disagree= 2, somewhat disagree = 3, neither agree or disagree = 4, somewhat agree = 5, agree = 6, strongly agree = 7.

Figure 4 below reports the weekly frequency of viewing sexually explicit/pornographic material was as follows: 27% of participants used pornography 6-8h weekly, 22% consumed pornography 4-6h a week, 18% viewed it 2-4h weekly, and 13% consumed it about 1h every week. 10% of participants claimed that they did not use sexually explicit at all. In contrast, another 10% of participants reported more than 8h of viewing pornographic material a week.

Figure 5 below displays how long participants, who used sexually explicit/pornographic material, did so in one sitting: 33% of participants viewed pornography for 1-1½ h in one sitting, 27% used sexually explicit materials for more than 1½ h at a time, 23% watched it for 31-60 min, 9% viewed it for 15-30 min at a time, and only 8% used it less than 15 min in one sitting.

One-way ANOVA analyses demonstrated a significant difference, F(2,177)= 4.69, p<.05, in frequency of pornography use among students (M=2.48, SD=1.57), employed men (M=2.93, SD=1.29), and unemployed males (M=3.67, SD=1.56). In particular, Bonferroni post hoc tests revealed that unemployed males used significantly more pornography compared to male students (p<.05), but did not significantly differ from employed males in pornography consumption (p=.34). Because of unequal group sizes, N(students)=107, N(employed)=61, N(unemployed)=12, further differences among the three groups were not explored.

From Table 2, it can be seen that respondents self-perceived overall more positive effects of pornography consumption (M=4.08, SD= .68) than they perceived its negative effects (M= 2.98, SD= .70) on their lives. Nevertheless, participants tended to agree (M= 4.83, SD= 1.53) that their use of pornography became problematic for themselves or for others. In terms of their relationship, participants reported high satisfaction (M=5.13, SD= 1.36), moderate quality of alternatives (M= 3.68, SD= 1.41), high investment (M= 5.08, SD= 1.33) and somewhat high commitment (M=4.39, SD= 1.44).

Pearson correlations were conducted to assess the first objective. The results are presented in Table 3 below, showing the relationship between frequency of pornography use and selfperceived overall (positive and negative) effects of pornography consumption and problematic use of pornography.

Objective 1: To assess the relationship between frequency of pornography use and selfperceived overall (positive and negative) effects of pornography consumption and problematic use of pornography.

Hypothesis 1a: Frequency of pornography use will be negatively correlated with selfperceived overall positive effects of pornography consumption.

From Table 3 below, the result shows a moderate negative relationship between frequency of pornography and self-perceived overall positive effects of pornography consumption (r= -.31, p<.01). This means that the more male participants used pornography, the less they perceived pornography as having positive effects on their lives.

Hypothesis 1b: Frequency of pornography use will be positively correlated with selfperceived overall negative effects of pornography consumption.

Results show that frequency of pornography is moderately related to self-perceived overall negative effects of pornography consumption (r= .22, p< .01). The more pornography males consumed, the more they perceived its negative effects on their lives.

Hypothesis 1c: Frequency of pornography use will be positively correlated with problematic use of pornography.

From table 3 below, it is seen that there is a strong positive relationship between frequency of pornography use and problematic use of pornography (r= .59, p<.01). This means that the more males used pornography, the more they estimated that pornography use is a problem to themselves or to others in their lives.

Objective 2: To investigate whether frequency of pornography use predicts level of satisfaction, quality of alternatives, investment size and level of commitment.

Linear regression analyses were conducted to assess whether frequency of pornography use predicts level of satisfaction, quality of alternatives, investment size and level of commitment.

Hypothesis 2a: Frequency ofpornography use will predict lowered levels of satisfaction.

Frequency of pornography use was found to moderately lower satisfaction, R2=.052, F(1, 178) = 10.73, ß= -.238, p<.01. In other words, increase in pornography use was found to predict decrease in males' satisfaction with their romantic relationships.

Hypothesis 2b: Frequency ofpornography use will predict decreased levels of investment.

Frequency of pornography use was shown to moderately predict decreased investment, R2=.039, F(1, 178) = 8.245, ß= -.210, p<.01. The more pornography males used, the less invested they felt in their relationships.

Hypothesis 2c: Frequency ofpornography will predict diminished levels of commitment.

Frequency of pornography use predicted decreased commitment, R2=.032, F(1, 178) = 6.926, ß= -.194, p<.05, to a small extent. As males used more pornography, their commitment towards their partner got affected.

Hypothesis 2d: Frequency ofpornography use will predict heightened quality of alternatives.

Frequency of pornography use moderately predicted increase in quality of alternatives, R2=.130, F(1, 178) = 27.832, ß=.368, p<.01. As frequency of pornography use in males increased, so did their quality of alternatives.

In other words, as pornography use in males increase, their commitment, satisfaction and investment in their romantic relationships decrease, while their perception of attractive alternatives outside their relationship increases.

Discussion & Conclusion

This section will explain the results and will compare and contrast these to previous studies. Possible reasons for the findings will also be explored. It will also propose some limitations of this study, and will conclude on the applications of the findings.

The main objectives of the study were to determine how frequency of porn use affects individuals' perception of the effects of porn on their lives, as well as whether it predicts investment, satisfaction, commitment and quality of alternatives in individuals' relationships.

Our study demonstrates that the more pornography males used, the more problems it created in their lives. Similarly, the men's perception of negative effects of pornography increased and their perception of the positive effects of pornography decreased with increased use of pornography. The findings failed to support Hald & Malamuth's (2008) findings which demonstrated that participants reported only small negative self-perceived effects of "hardcore" pornography consumption, while reporting moderate positive effects, with with men reporting significantly more positive effects than women. This may be due to the fact that Hald & Malamuth's (2008) participants, who were from a Western background, might have had more positive attitudes towards pornography. The participants in our study were mainly of Asian origin and since pornography is considered as a taboo in Mauritius, it is probable that males might have perceived their pornography consumption negatively because of their religious beliefs (Stack, Wasserman & Kern, 2004). Additionally, our results may be explained by Check's (1992) and Russell's (1993) findings that males perceive their pornography consumption negatively because pornography impacts their personal life, as well as their romantic relationship (Bridges, Bergner & Hesson-McInnis, 2003). It can be further argued that the participants in our study perceived their pornography consumption negatively as they may feel a higher risk for job loss (Goldberg, 1998) or occupational disturbances due to pornography use.

In addition, the strong relationship between frequency of pornography use and problematic pornography use lend support to findings that males perceive their pornography consumption negatively. For instance, males report feeling guilty and embarrassed when viewing pornography (von Feilitzen & Carlsson, 2000) since it made them sexually aroused (Morgan, 2011). Similarly, pornography often gives rise to extramarital affairs (Stack, Wasserman & Kern, 2004), risky sexual behaviors, having sexual relationships with multiple partners (Braun-Courville & Rojas, 2009; Brown & L'Engle, 2009) and engaging in physically forced sex with their romantic partner (Crossman, 1995). These behaviors may explain why the men in our study felt negatively about pornography despite being frequent users of it.

Our findings also demonstrated that frequency of pornography use significantly lowers satisfaction levels, investment size, commitment levels while predicting heightened quality of alternatives. The decreased commitment levels may be explained by Zillmann & Bryant's (1988) claims that male pornography viewers have dominating attitudes towards their romantic partner. And thus, when these individuals become less dependent in their relationships, their levels of commitment may decline (Rusbult, Drigotas & Verette, 1994), especially if the user becomes dependent on pornographic materials rather than on their partner. Moreover, the male pornography user often does not sacrifice his likings of pornography for the welfare of his relationship (Powell & Van Vugt, 2003). This decline in responsiveness and support towards their partner thus lowers the commitment level in his romantic relationship (Murray et al., 2001). Furthermore, as Guerrero, Anderson & Afifi (2011) mention, relationship commitment is enhanced when a couple perceives their relationship to be equitable. In the case where the partner of the pornography user perceives an imbalance in dependency, there may then be decrease levels of commitment from the partner as well.

Resch & Alderson (2014) pointed out that when an individual was honest about his pornography use to his romantic partner, the level of satisfaction in the couple increased. However when the male did not disclose their pornography use to his romantic partner, the level of satisfaction declined in the relationship, and they may face higher levels of stress in their romantic relationship. Since participants were from Mauritius who is a moderately conservative country, it is unlikely that all males disclosed their pornography use to their romantic partner. Thus these users might have felt higher levels of stress, thereby resulting in lowered satisfaction. Moreover, researchers have postulated that romantic partners experience satisfaction when both are physically and mentally healthy (Simpson & Tran, 2006). But when a partner, especially the man, consumes pornography while in a romantic relationship, he is more likely to experience higher levels of depression (Shapira et al, 2003; Young, 2005). Thus, his affected health may lead to decreases in satisfaction. Furthermore, researchers have proposed that satisfaction levels decrease when one's partner feels jealous in their romantic relationship (Guerrero & Eloy, 1992; Pfeiffer & Wong, 1989). Since the male pornography user usually perceives his partner's body negatively, comparing them with the pornography actresses, thereby lowering his partner's self - esteem (Albright, 2008), the female partner may feel jealous and satisfaction level in the romantic relationship may be lowered for both partners.

Our results show that frequency of pornography use results in decline in investment size. Investment size, which can be tangible (e.g. exchanging gifts) or intangible (e.g. spending time with one's romantic partner) (Goodfriend & Agnew, 2008) may enhance and strengthen a romantic relationship when couples exchange gifts with each other (Ruth, Otnes & Brunel, 1999). Similarly, Belk (1996) mentioned that exchanging gift pleases, surprises and delights the receiver. In situations where males consume pornography he will spend more time searching for pornographic videos on the internet and consequently spending less time with his partner (King, 2003). Thus investment levels may suffer because of this lack of devotion of time to one's partner, which may affect the quality of communication (Sacher & Fine, 1996).

Carroll et al. (2008) demonstrate that male pornography use results in greater number of lifetime sexual partners and greater acceptance of extradyadic sex. A possible reason for this practice is that pornography consumers are more likely to be unfaithful to their partner (Zillmann & Bryant, 1988) since pornography consumption increases men's desire for sexual variety. Moreover, viewing pornography makes men perceive their partner's bodies negatively while they view the porn actresses to be more physically appealing (Betzold, 1990). Thus, this dissatisfaction may urge them to try new alternatives to their partners.

Limitations

Some limitations in the current study deserve some consideration. The first limitation is with respect to the sample. Females could have been recruited in the study to investigate the impact of their pornography use on their romantic relationship. However, since pornography use in females is still considered inappropriate and taboo, it was unlikely that adequate number of females would have been willing to participate in this study. Another problem is the small size of the sample used in this study. The size of a statistical sample is used in the denominator of the standard error formula, and thus as sample size increases, the standard error decreases. If a larger sample had been included in this study, there most probably would have been less variation (and more precision) in the results. Moreover, the upper age limit of participants was restricted to 29 years since older individuals were reluctant to participate in the study. It is highly possible that the findings would have been different if a representative sample of the older population had also been recruited for this study, especially since Popović (2011b) established the negative relationship between porn usage and age in males. Likewise, preliminary analyses demonstrated differences in pornography consumption between unemployed males and students, but not in employed men. Further tests on the effects of these groups on their quality of relationship were, however, not conducted because of unequal group sizes. It is possible that these group differences on pornography use (and potentially, on other variables) might be due to varying levels of education among the three groups. Thus, education level, as an independent variable, could have been investigated in this study to provide more comprehensive findings. Additionally, the Pornography Consumption Effect scale (PCES) could have further been used to measure the overall positive/ negative effect of pornography consumption for each of the 5 domains (Sex life, life in general, perceptions of and attitudes towards the opposite gender, attitudes towards sex and sexual knowledge). This would have helped to determine which domains are more affected either positively or negatively by pornography consumption. Due to lack of time, these analyses were not included in this study.

Direction for Future Research

The findings of this quantitative survey could be complemented with some in-depth qualitative research about this topic (e.g. involving the male's partner's perception of how his pornography use is affecting their relationship). Furthermore, females and individuals from various age groups could be included in future research so as to increase the external validity of the findings.

Conclusion

Research on pornography has become important since pornography affects people's lives in several ways. It obviously has a great impact on individuals' romantic relationships. Different research has been done on pornography from different societies, countries, culture and even on different ethnicities. This present research has demonstrated that porn use has significant illeffects on intimate relationships. Its role in infidelity, intimate partner violence, rape, gender inequality, divorce, and other social problems should be seriously explored.

Footnote

1 Postal Address: Department of Social Studies, University of Mauritius, Reduit 80837, Mauritius. E-mail Address: [email protected].

References

References

1. Adams, K. M., & Robinson, D. W. (2001). Shame reduction, affect regulation, and sexual boundary development: Essential building blocks of sexual addiction treatment. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 8(1), pp. 23-44. doi:10.1080/107201601750259455

2. Agnew, C. R., Van Lange, P. A. M., Rusbult, C. E., & Langston, C. A. (1998). Cognitive interdependence: Commitment and the mental representation of close relationships. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(4), pp. 939-954. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.4.939

3. Albright, J. M. (2008). Sex in America online: an exploration of sex, marital status, and sexual identity in internet sex seeking and its impacts. Journal of Sex Research, 45(2): pp. 175-86. doi: 10.1080/00224490801987481.

4. Arakawa, D., Flanders, C., & Hatfield, E. (2012). Are variations in gender equality evident in pornography? A cross-cultural study. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36(2), pp. 279-285. https://doi.org/10.1016/i.iiintrel.2011.08.006

5. Barak, A., & King, S. A. (2000). The two faces of the internet: Introduction to the special issue on the Internet and sexuality. CyberPsychology& Behavior, 3(4), pp. 517-520. https://doi.org/10.1089/109493100420133

6. Belk, R. W. (1996). The Perfect Gift. In C. Otnes & R. F. Beltramini (Eds.), Gift-Giving: A Research Anthology. (pp. 59-84). Bowling Green, OH: Bowling Green University Popular Press.

7. Bergner, R. M., & Bridges, A. J. (2002). The Significance of Heavy Pornography Involvement for Romantic Partners: Research and Clinical Implications. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 28(3), pp. 193-206. doi: 10.1080/009262302760328235

8. Berscheid, E. (1999). The greening of relationship science. American Psychologist, 54, pp. 260-266. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.4.260

9. Betzold, M. (1990). How Pornography Shackles men and Oppresses woman. In M. Kimmel. (Ed), Men Confronting Pornography, (pp. 115-118), New York: Crown Publishers Inc.

10. Braun-Courville, D. K., & Rojas, M. (2009). Exposure to sexually explicit web sites and adolescent sexual attitudes and behaviors. Journal of Adolescent Health, 45(2), pp. 156- 162. https://doi.org/10.1016/ijadohealth.2008.12.004

11. Brehm, S. S., Miller, R. S., Perlman, D., & Campbell, S. M. (2007). Intimate relationships. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

12. Bridges, A. J., & Morokoff, P. J. (2011). Sexual media use and relationship satisfaction in heterosexual couples. Personal Relationships, 18(4), pp. 562-585. https://doi.org/10.1111/i.1475-6811.2010.01328.x

13. Bridges, A. J., Bergner, R. M., & Hesson-McInnis, M. (2003). Romantic partners' use of pornography: Its significance for women. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 29(1), pp. 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/713847097

14. Brown, J. D., & L'Engle, K. L. (2009). X-rated sexual attitudes and behaviors associated with US early adolescents' exposure to sexually explicit media. Communication Research, 36, pp. 129-151. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650208326465

15. Buzzell, T. (2005). Demographic characteristics of persons using pornography in three technological contexts. Sexuality & Culture: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly, 9(1), pp. 28-48. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02908761

16. Cann, A., & Baucom, T. R. (2004). Former partners and new rivals as threats to a relationship: Infidelity type, gender, and commitment as factors related to distress and forgiveness. Personal Relationships, 11(3), pp. 305-318. https://doi.org/10.1111/İ.1475-6811.2004.00084.x

17. Carroll, J. S., Padilla-Walker, L. M., Nelson, L. J., Olson, C. D., McNamara Barry, C. & Madsen, S. D. (2008). Generation XXX: Pornography acceptance and use among emerging adults. Journal of adolescent research, 23(1), pp. 6-30. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0743558407306348

18. Check, J. V. P. (1992). The effects of violent pornography, nonviolent dehumanizing pornography and erotica: Some legal implications from a Canadian perspective. In C. Itzin (Ed.), Pornography: Women, violence and civil liberties. (pp. 350-359). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

19. Ciclitira, K. (2002). Researching pornography and sexual bodies. The Psychologist, 15(4), pp. 191-194.

20. Cooper, A. (1998). Sexuality and the internet: Surfing into the new millennium. Cyber Psychology and Behavior, 1(2), pp. 187-193. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.1998.1.187

21. Cooper, A., Boies, S., Maheu, M., & Greenfield, D. (2000). Sexuality and the internet: The next sexual revolution. In L. T. Szuchman, F. Muscarella (Eds.), Psychological perspectives on human sexuality (pp. 519-545). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.

22. Cooper, A., Delmonico, D. & Burg, R. (2000). Cybersex users, abusers, and compulsives: New findings and implications. In A. Cooper (Ed.), Cybersex: The Dark Side of the Force, (pp. 5-29), Philadelphia: Brunner, Routledge.

23. Cooper, A., Scherer, C., Boies, S. C., & Gordon, B. (1999). Sexuality on the Internet: From sexual exploration to Pathological expression. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 3(2), pp. 154-164. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.30.2.154

24. Crossman, L. L. (1995). Date rape and sexual aggression by college males: Incidence and the involvement of impulsivity, anger hostility, psychopathology, peer influence and pornography use. Dissertation Abstracts International: Section B: The Sciences and Engineering, 55, 4640.

25. Daneback, K., Mansson, S.A., & Ross, M.W. (2012). Technological advancements and Internet sexuality: does private access to the Internet influence online sexual behavior? Cyberpsychology, behavior and social networking, 15(8), pp. 386-90. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2011.0188

26. Daneback, K., Traeen, B., & Mansson, S. A. (2008). Use of pornography in a random sample of Norwegian heterosexual couples. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 38, pp. 746-753. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-008-9314-4

27. Donnerstein, E. & Linz, D. (1998). Mass media, sexual violence, and male viewers. In M. E. Odem & J. Clay Warner (Eds.) Confronting Rape and Sexual Assault, (pp. 181-98), Oxford: SR Books.

28. Duffy, S., & Rusbult, C. E. (1986). Satisfaction and commitment in homosexual and heterosexual relationships. Journal of Homosexuality, 12(2), pp. 12-23. https://doi.org/ 10.1300/i082v12n02 01

29. Eberstadt, M. (2009). Is pornography the new tobacco? Policy Review, 154, pp. 3-18.

30. Finkel, E. J., Rusbult, C. E., Kumashiro, M., & Hannon, P. A. (2002). Dealing with betrayal in close relationships: Does commitment promote forgiveness? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), pp. 956-974. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.956

31. Flood, M. (2009). The harms of pornography exposure among children and young people. Child Abuse Review, 18(6), pp. 384-400. https://doi.org/10.1002/car. 1092

32. Gagné, F. M., & Lydon, J. E. (2003). Identification and the commitment shift: Accounting for gender differences in relationship illusions. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(7), pp. 907-919. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203029007009

33. Goldberg, A. (1998). Monthly users report on adult sexually oriented sites for April 1998. Washington, D.C.: Relevant Knowledge.

34. Goodfriend, W., & Agnew, C. R. (2008). Sunken costs and desired plans: Examining different types of investment in close relationships. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, pp. 1639-1652. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167208323743

35. Griffiths, M. (2001). Sex on the internet: Observations and implications for internet sex addiction. Journal of Sex Research, 38(4), pp. 333-342. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490109552104

36. Grov, C., Gillespie, B., Royce, T., &Lever, J. (2011). Perceived consequences of casual online sexual activities on heterosexual relationships: A U. S. online survey. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(2), pp. 429-439. doi:10.1007/s10508 010-9598-z

37. Guerrero, L. K., & Eloy, S. V. (1992). Relationship satisfaction and jealousy across marital types. Communication Reports, 5(1), pp. 23-41. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 08934219209367540

38. Guerrero, L. K., Anderson, P. A., & Afifi, W. A. (2011). Close Encounters: Communication in Relationships (3rd ed.). Los Angeles: Sage.

39. Hald, G. M., Malamuth, N. M., &Yuen, C. (2010). Pornography and attitudes supporting violence against women: Revisiting the relationship in non experimental studies. Aggressive Behavior, 36(1), pp. 14-20. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.20328

40. Hald, M., & Malamuth, N. (2008). Self-perceived effects of pornography in a representative sample of the Danish population. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 37(4), pp. 614-625. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-007-9212-1

41. Hardy, S. (2004). Reading pornography. Sex Education, 4(1), pp. 3-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/1468181042000176506

42. Henline, B. H., Lamke, L. K., & Howard, M. D. (2007). Exploring perceptions of online infidelity. Personal Relationships, 14(1), pp. 113-128. https://doi.org/10.1111/ i.1475-6811.2006.00144.x

43. Janssen, E., Carpenter, D., & Graham, C. A. (2003). Selecting films for sex research: Gender differences in erotic film preference. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 32(3), pp. 243-251. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1023413617648

44. Kafka, M. P. (2001). The paraphilia-related disorders: A proposal for a unified classification of nonparaphilichypersexuality disorders. Sexual Addiction and Compulsivity, 8(3-4), pp. 227-239. https://doi.org/10.1080/107201601753459937

45. Kalman, T.P. (2008). Clinical encounters with Internet pornography. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychiatry, 36(4), pp. 593-618. https://doi.org/10.1521/iaap.2008.36.4.593

46. King, S. (2003). The impact of compulsive sexual behaviors on clergy marriages: Perspectives and concerns of the pastor's wife. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 10(2-3), pp. 193-199. https://doi.org/10.1080/107201603902306307

47. Loftus, D. (2002). Watching sex: How men really respond to pornography. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press.

48. Maddox, A. M., Rhoades, G. K., & Markman, H. J. (2009). Viewing sexually-explicit materials alone or together: Associations with relationship quality. Archives of SexualBehavior, 40(2), pp. 441-448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-009-9585-4

49. Malamuth, N. (1993). Pornography's impact on male adolescents. Adolescent Medicine: State of the Art Reviews, 4, pp. 563-576.

50. Malamuth, N. M., Addison, T., & Koss, M. (2000). Pornography and sexual aggression. Annual Review of Sex Research, 11, pp. 26-91.

51. Malamuth, N. M., Hald, G. M., & Koss, M. (2012). Pornography, Individual Differences in Risk and Men's Acceptance of Violence Against Women in a Representative Sample. Sex Roles, 66, 427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-011-0082-6

52. Maltz, W., & Maltz, L. (2006). The pornography trap. New York: Harper Collins.

53. Manning, J. C. (2006). The impact of internet pornography on marriage and the family: A review of the research. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 13(2), pp. 131-165. https://doi.ore/10.1080/10720160600870711

54. Meerkerk, G. J., Van Den Eijnden, R. J. J. M., & Garretsen, H. F. L. (2006). Predicting compulsive Internet use: it's all about sex! Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 9(1), pp. 95-103. https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2006.9.95

55. Morgan, E. M. (2011). Associations between young adults' use of sexually explicit materials and their sexual preferences, behaviors, and satisfaction. Journal of Sex Research, 48(6), pp. 520-530. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2010.543960

56. Murray, S. L., Holmes, J. G., Griffin, D. W., Bellavia, G., & Rose, P. (2001). The mismeasure of love: How self doubt contaminates relationship beliefs. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, pp. 423-436. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201274004

57. Omar, S. (2012). Children who sexually abuse other children-A South African Perspective. AFRICAN SUN MeDIA.

58. Omori, K., Zhang, Y. B., Allen, M., Ota, H., & Imamura, M. (2011). Japanese college students' media exposure to sexually explicit materials, perceptions of women, and sexually permissive attitudes. Journal of Intercultural Communication Research, 40(2), pp. 93-110. https://doi.org/10.1080/17475759.2011.581031

59. Paul, B., & Shim, J. W. (2008). Gender, sexual affect, and motivations for Internet pornography use. Internet Journal of Sexual Health, 20(3), pp. 187-199. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610802240154

60. Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2007). Adolescents' exposure to a sexualized media environment and notions of women as sex objects. Sex Roles, 56(5), pp. 381-395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-006-9176-y

61. Pfeiffer, S. M., & Wong, P. T. P. (1989). Multidimensional jealousy. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 6, pp. 181-196. https://doi.org/10.1177/026540758900600203

62. Popović, M. (2011a). Pornography Use and Closeness with Others in Women. Srp Arh Celok Lek, 139(5-6), pp. 353-359. https://doi.org/10.2298/SARH1106353P

63. Popović, M. (2011b). Pornography Use and Closeness with Others in Men. Arch Sex Behav, 40, pp. 449-456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-010-9648-6

64. Poulsen, F. O., Busby, D. M., & Galovan, A. M. (2012). Pornography Use: Who Uses It and How It Is Associated with Couple Outcomes. Journal of Sex Research, 50(1), pp. 72-83. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2011.648027

65. Powell, C., & Van Vugt, M. (2003). Genuine giving or selfish sacrifice?: The role of commitment and cost level upon willingness to sacrifice. European Journal of Social Psychology, 33(3), pp. 403-412. https://doi.org/10.1002/eisp.154

66. Reid, R. C., & Woolley, S. R. (2006). Using emotionally focused therapy for couples to resolve attachment ruptures created by hypersexual behavior. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 13(2-3), pp. 219-239. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720160600870786

67. Reid, R. C., Li, S. S., Gilliland, R., Stein, J. A., & Fong, T. (2011). Reliability, validity, psychometric development of the Pornography Consumption Inventory in a sample of hypersexual men. Journal of Sex and Martial Therapy, 37(5), pp. 359-385. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2011.607047

68. Resch, M. N., & Alderson, K. G. (2014). Female Partners of Men Who Use Pornography: Are Honesty and Mutual Use Associated With Relationship Satisfaction? Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 40(5), pp. 410-424. https://doi.ore/10.1080/0092623X.2012.751077

69. Ropelato, J. (2007a). Internet pornography statistics. Retrieved January 6, 2017, from http://web.archive.org/web/20070306215305/http://internet-filter-review. toptenreviews.com/internet-pomography-statistics.html.

70. Ropelato, J. (2007b). Pornography Statistics 2007. Retrieved January 6, 2017, from http://web.archive.org/web/20070315020535/http://internet-filter-review. toptenreviews.com/internet-pomography-statistics.html.

71. Rusbult, C. E. (1980). Commitment and satisfaction in romantic associations: A test of the investment model. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 16(2), pp. 172-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1031(80)90007-4

72. Rusbult, C. E. (1983). A longitudinal test of the investment model: The development (and deterioration) of satisfaction and commitment in heterosexual involvements. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 45(1), pp. 101-117. doi: 10.1037/0022 3514.45.1.101

73. Rusbult, C. E., & Buunk, B. P. (1993). Commitment processes in close relationships: An interdependence analysis. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 10, pp. 175-204. https://doi.org/10.1177/026540759301000202

74. Rusbult, C. E., & Farrell, D. (1983). A longitudinal test of the investment model: The impact on job satisfaction, job commitment, and turnover of variations in rewards, costs, alternatives, and investments. Journal of Applied Psychology, 68, pp. 429-438. https://doi.ore/10.1037/0021-9010.68.3.429

75. Rusbult, C. E., Agnew, C. R., & Arriaga, X. B. (2012). The investment model of commitment processes. In P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (Vol 2), (pp. 218-231), Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Ltd.

76. Rusbult, C. E., Drigotas, S. M., & Verette, J. (1994). The investment model: An interdependence analysis of commitment processes and relationship maintenance phenomena. In D.Canary & L. Stafford (Eds.), Communication and relational maintenance, (pp. 115-139), New York: Academic Press

77. Rusbult, C. E., Martz, J. M., & Agnew, C. R. (1998). The Investment Model Scale: Measuring commitment level, satisfaction level, quality of alternatives, and investment size. Personal Relationships, 5(4), pp. 357-391. doi: 10.1111/İ.1475 6811.1998.tb00177.x

78. Russell, D. E. H. (1993). Against pornography: The evidence of harm. Berkeley, CA: Russell Publications.

79. Russell, D. E. H., & Trocki, K. (1993). Evidence of harm. In D. E. H. Russell (Ed.), Making violence sexy: Feminist views on pornography (pp. 194-213), Teachers College Press.

80. Ruth, J.A., Otnes, C.C., & Brunel, F.F. (1999). Gift Receipt and the Reformulation of Interpersonal Relationships. Journal of Consumer Research, 25(4), pp. 385-402. https://doi.org/10.1086/209546

81. Sacher, J. A. & Fine, M. A. (1996). Predicting relationship status and satisfaction after six months among dating couples. Journal of Marriage & the Family, 58(1), pp. 21-32. https://doi.org/10.2307/353374

82. Schneider, J. P. (2000). Effects of cybersex addiction on the family: Results of a survey. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 7, pp. 31-58. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 10720160008400206

83. Schneider, J. P., & Schneider, B. H. (1996). Couple recovery from sexual addiction/ coaddiction: Results of a survey of 88 marriages. Sexual Addiction and Compulsivity, 3(2), pp. 111-126. https://doi.org/10.1080/10720169608400106

84. Shapira, N. A., Lessig, M. C., Goldsmith, T. D., Szabo, S. T., Lazoritz, M., Gold, M. S., & Stein, D. J. (2003). Problematic internet use: Proposed classification and diagnostic criteria. Depression & Anxiety, 17(4), pp. 207-216. https://doi.org/10.1002/da. 10094

85. Shaughnessy, K., Byers, E. S., & Walsh, L. (2011) Online sexual activity experience in heterosexual students: Gender similarities and differences. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, pp. 419-427. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-010-9629-9

86. Simpson, J. A., & Tran, S. (2006). The needs, benefits, and perils of close relationships: Functions, forms, and processes. In P. Noller, & J. A. Feeney (Eds.), Close relationships: Functions, forms, and processes, (pp. 3-24), New York, NY: Psychology Press.

87. Stack, S., Wasserman, I., & Kern, R. (2004). Adult social bonds and use of Internet pornography. Social Science Quarterly, 85(1), pp. 75-88. https://doi.org/10.1111/ i.0038-4941.2004.08501006.x

88. Szymanski, D. M., & Stewart-Richardson, D. N. (2014). Psychological, relational, and sexual correlates of pornography use on young adult heterosexual men in romantic relationships. Journal of Men's Studies, 22(1), pp. 64-82. https://doi.org/10.3149/ ims.2201.64

89. Thibaut, J. W., & Kelley, H. H. (1959). The social psychology of groups. New York: Wiley.

90. von Feilitzen, C., & Carlsson, U. (2000). Children in the new media landscape. Goteborg: The UNESCO International. Clearinghouse on Children and Violence on the Screen.

91. Weinberg, M. S., Williams, C. J., Kleiner, S., & Irizarry, Y. (2010). Pornography, normalization, and empowerment. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39(6), pp. 1389-1401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-009-9592-5

92. Wolf, N. (October 20, 2003). The Porn Myth. New York.

93. Young, K. S. (2005). An empirical examination of client attitudes towards online counseling. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 8(2), pp. 172-177. https://doi.org/10.1089/ cpb.2005.8.172

94. Yucel, D., & Gassanov, M. (2010). Exploring actor and partner correlates of sexual satisfaction among married couples. Social Science Research, 39(5), pp. 725-738. https://doi.org/10.1016/i.ssresearch.2009.09.002

95. Zillmann, D., & Bryant, J. (1988). Pornography's impact on sexual satisfaction. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18(5), pp. 438-453. https://doi.org/10.1111/ i.1559-1816.1988.tb00027.x