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I
German politicians from every camp regarded the Treaty of Versailles not only as the greatest burden Germany ever had to bear, but as a menace in itself, because of its War Guilt clause which became a major threat to the stability of the Weimar Republic, and also for its economic punishment, e.g. reparation payments. The armament limitations1 and in particular the naval provisions stuck out even more, because they injured German pride - still a major issue at the time even in politics - and became a constant reminder that Germany was not treated on a basis of equality by the Allies. On the one hand, the 'glorious' Imperial Navy was reduced to a shadow.2 On the other hand, the Navy became the first focal point for German calls for Gleichberechtigung (equality) and also marked the first breach and eventual demise of the Versailles Treaty.
From the perspective of western politicians, however, naval limitations on Germany were necessary and completely justified. Britain in particular was haunted by the threat to its naval supremacy in a strong German Navy. Tirpitz's pre-war concept of the Risikoflotte was exactly this spectre. Unrestricted submarine warfare became the concrete embodiment during the Great War. The prohibition of submarines in Article 191 of the Versailles Treaty exemplifies Britain's vivid memory of unrestricted submarine warfare with its shocking effects on mercantile shipping, i.e. the Allies lost over 3,000 ships to the German U-boats during the First World War.3
Restrictions on submarine warfare became one of the two core elements of interwar naval negotiations and also part and parcel of Britain's agenda as the dominant naval power. Restrictions on battleships are the other big objective of British interwar naval negotiations. The psychology of threat and deterrence was very important in both areas. The introduction of the first German (pocket) battleships of the Deutschland class built after the First World War, from 1933 onwards, is a good example. The threat perceived by Britain and portrayed by Germany far outweighs the military capabilities of these ships. The credo on which they were built - faster than anything heavier and stronger than any faster ship - mirrors the importance of psychological threat, when in reality...