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I. Introduction
One of the core doctrines of Mozi is his teaching on jian'ai Ш'й., and this is discussed primarily in the three chapters bearing this term in their title.1 The term "jian'ai" and its theme also appear scattered throughout the Mozi, such as in chapters like "Standards and Rules" and the "Intention of Tian." Jian'ai has been translated into English as "Universal Love," "Inclusive Care," "Impartial Care," and other similar phrases. As these various translations suggest, there is not yet a prevailing consensus on the exact meaning of jian'ai.2
Despite his renowned clarity and simplicity and his skill at argumentation, those who try to pin down Mozi's teaching on jian'ai soon encounter difficulties. I think there are two major reasons for this: one is that at times Mozi argued in an unsatisfactory way, and another is the strong influence of Mengzi's criticisms of Mozi. To begin with, Mozi's seemingly obvious doctrine of jian'ai is in fact not so coherent and systematic, for several reasons that involve questions about the audience, characteristics of content, and the doctrine's evolving nature. First, as many scholars acknowledge, the main target of Mozi's teaching is the rulers of his day or those with aspirations to rule the world. Nevertheless, many parts of his teachings seem to appeal to people more generally. This might be one of the reasons that Franklin Perkins describes Mozi as teaching "public doctrines."3 Second, Mozi's fundamental ideas and his rhetoric were so tightly intertwined that it is hard to discern to what extent his words engage in persuading his audience to practice jian'ai and to what extent his words reflect his theoretical claims about jian'ai. Third, recent scholarship suggests that the three chapters of "Jian'ai" (Impartial Care) in particular and the Mozi text in general may have evolved over time.4 This implies that there might be some changes or even inconsistencies within the teachings of Mozi.
In addition to these difficulties, another obstacle to deciphering Mozi's jian'ai is Mengzi's criticisms of Mozi.5 Mengzi famously attacked Mozi's jian'ai as "love without distinctions," as opposed to the Ruist ren {A as "love with distinctions" or "graded love."6 This contrast between the two doctrines has been tremendously influential in the subsequent analysis and interpretation of jian'ai, even up...