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Since religion and government represent two of the most potent institutions humanity has ever known, the combination of these two ingredients has long been a fascinating recipe for power. Constitutional creators feared the joining of ultimate righteousness with ultimate means to the point of proscribing such a combination. Despite this insurance against a union of church and state--and perhaps because of this insurance--political figures have been confronted on the issue of their religious beliefs conflicting with their civic duties in government. The most prominent examples in this century are two democratic candidates for president: Alfred E. Smith and John F. Kennedy. Both men were libeled and labeled with the expression "the Catholic candidate for president." On September 20, 1928, Alfred E. Smith delivered a fiery address in Oklahoma City castigating those raising the issue of religion. On September 12, 1960, in Houston, Texas, John F. Kennedy likewise refuted the notion that a Catholic should be prohibited from the office of the presidency. Kennedy in 1960 overcame this major campaign hurdle and went on to become one of the most popular presidents of the twentieth century. Smith, by contrast, lost the 1928 election and faded into political oblivion. The Kennedy speech has been carefully studied by scholars like David Henry (1982) and is generally acknowledged to be one of his best speeches (Sorensen, 1965). Surprisingly, a similar and closely related precursor to this speech has received little or no attention in rhetorical scholarship. This omission from study is unfortunate because Kennedy and his campaign staff sought to avoid repeating the errors Smith made in 1928 (Sorensen, 1965; Leuchtenburg, 1988; Burns, 1961).
Al Smith's abrupt political failure and his connection to John F. Kennedy compels an analysis of the Smith campaign speech in Oklahoma City. Smith and a number of biographers attribute his loss of the 1928 election to the Catholic question (Handlin, 1958; O'Connor, 1970; Graham, 1945). Smith's "failed rhetoric" provides the contrast to give us a clearer view of Smith's unsuccessful 1928 campaign and significant clues as to Kennedy's success on the same issue in 1960. My purpose is to explain Smith's rhetorical errors at Oklahoma City that factored into his political demise.
Since Smith's speech was one of self-defense, the speech text suggests...