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National assessments consistently show that persuasive writing tasks pose more difficulty for students than informative or narrative tasks (Applebee, Langer, Mullis, Latham, & Gentile, 1994). Persuasive essays require students to provide evidence in an attempt to influence readers to change their thinking-a skill that even the best student writers find difficult. Results from the most recent National Assessment of Educational Progress (Applebee et al., 1994) indicated that most students' response to the task was brief, vague, or somewhat confusing. Papers were minimally developed-reasons were not explained or defended in a way that might convince a reader.
In comparison to peers without learning problems, students with learning disabilities (LD) typically write persuasive compositions that are even less proficient. To illustrate, consider an essay composed by Aaron, an African American seventh-grader with learning and writing disabilities. When responding to the prompt, "Do you think children should be required to clean their rooms?" and told, "Remember to plan your essay before you begin writing," Aaron immediately wrote the following text: "I think children should be required to clean their room because if they derdy their room then they should clean it up. In my house you clean up if you derdy up." In this essay, Aaron stated his position (i.e., a premise), then continued with a single supporting reason, one personal example (elaborating the reason), and ended abruptly without a conclusion.
Backgound and Rationale for STOP and DARE
To confront this automated retrieve-and-write approach directly, Steve Graham and I developed a writing strategy called STOP and DARE (De La Paz & Graham, 1997a, 1997b). We wanted to teach students like Aaron an approach to writing that emphasized both reflection and planning. For this reason, before writing, students learn to be reflective by generating ideas to support each side of an issue before deciding what their position is. As they develop their initial plans, students decide how to refute opposing viewpoints in the text of their paper. In addition, STOP and DARE helps students develop sophisticated essays that go beyond the most basic format of premise, supporting reasons, and conclusion. Students are often expected to demonstrate these qualities by the middle- and upper-grade levels in school, and their papers are rated more positively when they do so (Applebee et...