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Introduction
It is undeniable that information and communication technologies (ICTs) have had an impact on education. ICTs are said to be able to improve education in many ways, e.g. improve the delivery of education, improve the learning process, improve students' writing, support more interaction and reduce the teachers' workload ([54] Venable et al. , 2011; [25] Lei and Zhao, 2008; [16] Grimes and Warschauer, 2008). Technology is being introduced at all levels of education and it is increasingly common for students to receive a laptop to supplement their regular classroom learning (1:1 laptops). In Sweden, where the research presented in this paper takes place, the first initiatives came from private schools wishing to gain a business advantage. However, with increased emphasis on IT skills in the national school curriculum ([51] Skolverket, 2011) the number of 1:1 laptop schools is increasing in both private and public schools. The rationale behind 1:1 implementations is that the new opportunities provided by the laptops should improve the learning in schools ([6] Bebell and O'Dwyer, 2010; [32] Peck and Sprenger, 2008). The positive effects of the use are, however, not always clear and there is little empirical evidence of the effects ([6] Bebell and O'Dwyer, 2010; [20] Johnson and Maddux, 2008). What is clear, however, is that exposure to technology does not automatically lead to meaningful usage or knowledge acquisition ([27] Madon, 2000). The laptop "is only the first step toward using the technology as an effective instructional and learning tool" ([50] Silvernail and Buffington, 2009, p. 13). Too much focus on technology may divert our attention away from what really matters: "It is really not about the laptops. It's about what the 1:1 laptops enable in terms of new ways of teaching and learning" ([12] Dunleavy et al. , 2007, p. 451).
Commonly studied 1:1 laptop themes are success factors for the implementation of computers in schools such as the teachers' importance and the need for school-level leadership ([5] Bebell and Kay, 2010; [9] Drayton et al. , 2010). For teachers the benefits are often in terms of management and administrative efficiency rather than pedagogical changes ([24] Lai and Pratt, 2008). Regarding outcomes for students, 1:1 laptops are said to lead to, e.g. a more fun learning environment,...