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Use of superstitious behaviors in sport is a widely accepted practice in athletes from all sports and across cultures (Womack, 1992). Although these behaviors are prevalent, a limited number of research studies have examined superstitious behaviors or rituals, their perceived effectiveness, or the underlying determinants of these behaviors. The present study examines superstition use in three, NCAA, Division 1, collegiate teams. Surveys measuring use of superstitious rituals and their perceived effectiveness, importance of sport success, sport anxiety, locus of control and religiosity were given to 107 athletes on football, gymnastics and track teams. Results of the study indicated that superstitious ritual use varies across sports, and that most-used behaviors are not necessarily those rated most effective in influencing sport performance. In addition, little support was shown for anxiety, locus of control, importance of success or religiosity playing significant roles in determining overall use of superstitious behavior However, these factors were important in distinguishing use of specific rituals. This work is important in understanding what superstitious rituals athletes use and how effective those rituals are perceived to be. Follow-up work needs to address the relationship between use of superstition in sport and actual sport performance.
From professional athletic organizations to the local little league team, the use of superstitious behavior in sport is evident from numerous TV and newspaper reports covering athletics. These rituals can come in the form of ice baths before a football game to listening to a certain song before a gymnastics event. Athletes may have lucky charms that inspire them during the contest or they may repeat a secret phrase known only to them before shooting a free throw. Other superstitious behaviors related to food, pre and post-game activity, clothing, and behavior during competition are prevalent in all major sports (Buhrmann, Brown, and Zaugg, 1982). Superstitious behaviors in sport can be defined as actions which are repetitive, formal, sequential, distinct from technical performance, and which the athletes believe to be powerful in controlling luck or other external factors (Womack, 1992). The repetitive nature of such events allows for the term "ritual" to be used to describe these superstitious behaviors. Buhrmann et al. (1982) and Becker (1975) discuss how use of superstition in sport can serve other purposes for the athlete as...