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Introduction
General chemistry is a mandatory course for those in pursuit of careers in various allied health and science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields. However, many students find chemistry difficult (Carter & Brickhouse, 1989; Woldeamanuel, Atagana, & Engida, 2014). The mathematical content embedded in chemistry, the abstract nature of chemical concepts, and the specialized language used in the field are among the most common factors listed as making chemistry difficult (Cardellini, 2012).
For English language learners (ELLs), the situation is especially demanding, as these students are required to learn the specialized academic language and concepts of chemistry while simultaneously learning English. Often, ELLs have to go through multiple cognitive processes as they use their first language skills to facilitate the acquisition of information presented in a new language (August & Hakuta, 1997; Francis et al., 2006). Furthermore, in the context of chemistry learning, additional cognitive challenges can be imposed by the fact that some of the terms used in chemistry either are not used in everyday conversation or have specialized meanings (e.g., stoichiometry and stability, respectively; Chatmot & O'Malley, 1994).
To further complicate the matter, chemistry is also comprehensive in nature, which does not leave much room for error in developing a solid understanding of key concepts. If ELLs develop incorrect understandings about words or phrases used early in the semester, those misunderstandings will negatively impact their learning of chemistry concepts in the future (Carter & Brickhouse, 1989).
Each of the challenges listed in the previous paragraphs can potentially become an impediment to ELLs' future success, and research has suggested that this student group is largely overlooked, particularly in the context of postsecondary science classrooms (Kanno & Cromley, 2013). However, the National Science Teachers Association (2018) stated that "all students can and should have every opportunity to learn and succeed in science."
It is important that we, as educators, address the unique learning experiences and needs that ELL students have in the science classroom to provide them with equitable access to science knowledge and careers. The goal of the current study is to consider the specific challenges that ELL students face in university-level general chemistry courses. We believe that this information can provide college science instructors with insights about how to support the learning...