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1. Introduction
Educational reform initiatives, both local and worldwide, have one mission to accomplish. They all aim to enhance school effectiveness. For the success of these initiatives, teachers play a pivotal role (Fullan, 1995; Lieberman and Miller, 1999; Hopkins, 2000). The traditional, transmission-oriented approach of helping teachers to reconceptualize their pedagogy through off-site professional development (PD) courses and seminars that take place in isolated moments in time is no longer perceived as viable and effective (Darling-Hammond, 1998; Lieberman, 1996). The “deficit” model which views teachers as empty vessels to be filled (Garmston, 1991) is neither considered appropriate. Instead, collaborative and practice-oriented renewal projects undertaken by teacher learning communities (TLCs) in schools that significantly involve teachers at all levels of planning and actioning are seen as effective in helping teachers to conceive and attempt alternative pedagogies, and to develop in their dual roles as learners and practitioners (Darling-Hammond and McLaughlin, 1995). This paper examines the ways in which TLCs were organized by subject leaders in secondary schools in Hong Kong for their potential in advancing teacher professional enhancement.
2. PD and TLCs
PD has been defined in many ways. It can be seen as more than mere skill training, but as a process of culture building (Cochran-Smith and Lytle, 2001). It is most effective when based in schools and related to the daily activities of teachers and learners (McLaughlin and Zarrow, 2001). Based on this perspective, schools are transformed into communities of learners and inquiry (McLaughlin and Zarrow, 2001), whereby teacher professional learning becomes a collaborative process. Numerous studies show a noticeable impact of successful PD experiences on teachers’ work (Darling-Hammond, 1999; Nelson, 1999; Wood and Bennett, 2000), student achievement and learning (Borko and Putnam, 1995; Darling-Hammond, 1999) and educational reforms (Chadbourne,1995; Walker and Cheong, 1996; Day, 2000; Morris et al., 2000; Van Driel et al., 2001; Villegas-Reimers, 2003). Conditions identified as facilitating teacher PD include opportunities for instructional expertise enhancement, leadership development in innovation and inquiry, respect for teacher autonomy, promotion of openness, collegiality and trust, flexible school infrastructure and supportive administration and resources (Ancess, 2001; Guskey, 1995).
The formation of TLCs as a form of professional learning communities (PLCs) helps teachers to “extend their commitment as change agents” (Day, 1997, p. 4)....