TOURISM AND SECURITY IN AN INTERCONNECTED WORLD. GLOBALISATION'S CONSEQUENCES ON TOURISM AND SECURITY

Abstract

The paper addresses the tourism security nexus in a time of crisis, putting under debate the concept of the virtuous/vicious circle in the context of economy disruption caused by a pandemic, having travel and tourism sector as case study. Using two different crisis as main examples, such as the Tōhoku earthquake of 2011 in Japan and the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020, the authors discuss the relationship between the exercise of freedoms (including freedom of movement) during a crisis and the measures aimed to provide security and safety, which of course may touch on the freedoms as the state of emergency may require. The paper tries to raise the awareness on the fact that security is the state of normality of the society, which is paramount for travel and tourism sector. This contribution to the topic is not intended to be exhaustive but to open up the debate.

Headnote

Abstract: The paper addresses the tourism security nexus in a time of crisis, putting under debate the concept of the virtuous/vicious circle in the context of economy disruption caused by a pandemic, having travel and tourism sector as case study. Using two different crisis as main examples, such as the Tōhoku earthquake of 2011 in Japan and the COVID-19 pandemic of 2020, the authors discuss the relationship between the exercise of freedoms (including freedom of movement) during a crisis and the measures aimed to provide security and safety, which of course may touch on the freedoms as the state of emergency may require. The paper tries to raise the awareness on the fact that security is the state of normality of the society, which is paramount for travel and tourism sector. This contribution to the topic is not intended to be exhaustive but to open up the debate.

Keywords: security, tourism, globalisation, pandemic, normality, state of emergency, freedom, vicious circle

Introduction: the perfect time for cherry blossom

From October to May, tourist season is in full force all around the globe, as vacationers from the Nordic hemisphere are seeking for sunny days and engage in travels - these months are the best during the year for travel and tourism, especially as covering the Christmas vacation and the New Year celebration. While some are enjoying skiing, snow and cold weather, the cruise and airline industry benefit in full by the specificity of the warm climate: the storms in the Caribbean, the Indian Ocean and the Pacific are over, allowing sunbath, snorkelling and scuba diving, plus cruising - is the start of Round the World cruises; the monsoon in the South Asia lets room for the dry season; North African and the Middle East beaches are opening their sunbeds, as the summer hot is gone, Santa Claus visits the Australian beaches emerging from the ocean, after welcoming guests at home in Rovaniemi of Finland, the Dubai Shopping Festival starts and the Chinese New Year begins1.

Probably the best time for a vacation during the year is from October to May, indeed. But... happens that it was the morning after Christmas on 26 December 2004 when the second most violent earthquake recorded after 1900 (9.3 Richter) - known as the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake - has produced some 283,000 victims in South-East Asia impacting 14 countries on 2 continents (Lay et al, 2005). Terrorist attacks on Hurghada beach of Egypt took place in January 2006. The Island based Eyjafjallajökull volcano erupted in early April 2010 to cause disruption of air traffic in some 20 countries as the ash covered large areas in Northern Europe, with approximately 10 million travellers affected2. And - to close here the examples of crisis situations impacting the international tourism - the suicide attack in the Istanbul's historic Sultanahmet district (in the vicinity of the most visited Blue Mosque and the Hagia Sophia) killed 13 foreigners and injured 14 others on 12 January 2016.

Travel and tourism are only possible during a state of normality, when the tourists feel safe to enjoy their holiday and capable to return home safe and sound3. Tourism, security and safety are linked.

Security, the state of normality of the society. Tourism and security - the crisis

The Japanese cherry trees bloom from early March, sometime late February in southernmost territories of the Nippon archipelago, to being in fool bloom at end of March in majority of Japan cities and may last until April in the island of Hokkaido. Like everywhere in the world, the appearance of this specific flower is linked to the beginning of the spring and the resulting increase in temperatures in the northern hemisphere. The arrival of the Japanese cherry blossoms, known as sakura, is a very important annual event all over Japan, so significant that there are forecasts pinpointing exactly when and where the flowers are expected to bloom4. The forecast is based on various factors, such as the low temperatures during autumn and winter, cumulative temperatures, past area data, cherry tree growth status, and rains and winds: though the forecast dates may change with each update (and 2020 is seen as a year with an early cherry bloom), they serve as an excellent guide for planning trips to Japan5. It is already known that the best travel time for Japan is the sakura season: the best time to visit Japan is towards the end of winter to mid-spring for the majority of the country (late March through to early May) in order to admire the cherry flowers6 or in September-November to enjoy the ever changing autumnal foliage. Hordes of tourists visit Japan during the spring and autumn seasons bringing an important contribution to the Japanese economy7. This was not the case in the spring of 2011, and seems not being the case for the 2020 cherry blossom season either.

On 11 March 2011, the fifth most powerful earthquake ever recorded struck the Tohoku/Sendai region of Japan, shortly followed by a high tsunami which pummelled Japan's north-eastern shoreline. The disaster took some 15,900 lives, fully destroyed 121,991 buildings, and displaced over 470,000 people, with a huge cost of more than $210 billion in economic damage8. On the other hand, at the very moment of the writing of this paper, the Japanese authorities are prepared to declare the state of emergency as the infections with the new coronavirus SAR-CoV-2 which spread all around the world since December 2019 has topped 1,000 in the capital, Tokyo, as reported by The Yomiuri Shimbun newspaper quoted by the European media9.

The Japan earthquake of 2011 is one of the many examples of crisis impacting the overall economy and especially the international travel and tourism. The earthquake of 11 March has been followed by the partial explosion of the Fukushima nuclear power plant on the following day.

The authorities have ordered people to stay in house to avoid radiation. The streets of Japan capital become empty, activities stopped, most of travel ceased, food disappeared from shops, gas station were closed or imposed fuel selling restrictions (as some refinery and fuel deposits in Tokyo bay were destroyed by the earthquake and tsunami, while fuel import was stopped for a while), people tried to get refuge to areas west of Tokyo, outside the contaminated zone. People started to avoid Japan fresh vegetables and fish (as the main source for the vegetable markets of Tokyo metropolis has been affected by the Fukushima accident). The state of normality changed in Kanto region, the daily life was suddenly different, but people abode, people simply stayed indoor, all Japan efforts (plus the international humanitarian support) focused on the disaster relief in Sendai and at Fukushima nuclear plant.

International arrivals to Japan, especially via the two international airports of Tokyo (Narita and Haneda) were replaced by mostly rescue flights arranged by various countries evacuating own citizens or bringing in disaster relief experts and humanitarian support. Most of departing flights were represented by evacuation arrangements for foreigners or Japanese seeking refuge to neighbouring areas such South Korea. The tourists cancelled their plans, all events and activities for the period from March to early June have been cancelled.

As all disasters, this brought direct implications to both national economy and to the travel and tourism sector, making Japan less appealing to international tourists at least for the following months after the crisis. The earthquake has been the most serious natural disaster in Japan since the 1995 Kobe earthquake and also triggered Japan's worst ever nuclear crisis (estimated as the world's worst ever nuclear emergency since Chernobyl nuclear plant accident of 26 April 1986).

The immediate impacts of the earthquake and tsunami on Japan 's Travel & Tourism were extremely stark as international arrivals were down 50% in March and then 62% in April. Inbound leisure tourism fell by an estimated 90% in the two months, according to the Japan Tourism Agency (JTA), with domestic travel down almost 20% over the period. The disruption to demand was felt across the country, not just in the north-eastern regions that were directly affected by the earthquake and tsunami. These initial impacts were apparently larger than the disruption witnessed in 1995 in the aftermath of the Kobe earthquake, and a wider set of events was considered as benchmarks for potential outcomes. Research by Oxford Economics into the recovery of Travel & Tourism after Hurricane Katrina, hurricanes in Central America and the Caribbean, and the Indian Ocean seaquake and tsunami in 2004, as well as terrorist attacks, shows that the average duration of an impact (excluding some outlying incidents) lies in the range of 8-26 months. This is the length of time taken for visitor spending to return to baseline levels. (WTTC, 2012: 2)

The total number of international tourism arrived to Japan dropped by 28% to 6.2 million in 2011, compared to 8.6 million tourism arrivals the previous year - and also had a significant short term impact on domestic tourism. Much of this was driven by fear of widespread radiation, sensationalised and distorted to apocalyptic proportions in some sections of the media and the blogosphere10.

As the radiation threat has been mostly regional, around the Fukushima plant (the exclusion zone) and up to some north-east of Tokyo, not affecting directly the main touristic spots for which Japan is widely known, the entire tourism industry focused to re-establish trust in the safety of the entire country, in order to bring back the national travellers and international tourists. "Japan needs international tourists to return, not only for those who depend on tourism for their livelihoods, but even more importantly to help bring a sense of normality back to Japan", underlined at the time Kylie Clark, head of PR and marketing for the Japan National Tourism Organisation (JNTO), as quoted by The Guardian11. Plenty of incentives have been offered during the second half of 2011 by the airline companies flying to Japan, the hotels and the concerned Japanese authorities. They have eventually managed to reestablish Japan on the destination list of sakura lovers, and the hordes of tourist slowly returned to Japan for the autumn season, increasing visitor numbers from 900,000 in the autumn of 2011 to 8.5 million in the spring of 2019: "Japan's cherry blossom season has very big economic effects every year"12. Japan was capable to get back to the normality, displacing a sense of security and safety.

But the time of security, safety and normality in daily life is gone by now. The crisis is back to Japan, as SAR-CoV-2 virus severely hit the archipelago along most of the countries around the world. We use again Japan as an example, because the case captured the European media interest only when the western tourists were directly affected by the infection on the ship locked down by the Japanese authorities in Yohohama harbour at the beginning of February 2020, with some 3,700 people confined aboard the vessel. The current epidemiologic crisis is ravaging economies worldwide and putting travel and tourism on the hold. The people fell unsecure: this is not the normality they know! Security measures are enforced, the state of emergency is declared, the authorities action accordingly, in order to re-establish the state of normality. Security and safety is over, restrictions replace freedoms.

The Japan population and millions of tourists should now be enjoying the blooming start of the 2020 cherry blossom viewing season (or hanami), as sakura is indeed extremely important for Japan, both economically and culturally. But in the spring of 2020, crowds have been asked again to stay away and some countries started to cancel flights to or from Japan. The pandemic spreading all over the world has direct influence on the Japan (and the world) travel and tourism: events and celebrations cancelled and foreign visitors staying away. To prevent the further spread of the coronavirus, people in Japan were urged not to hold hanami parties during this year's cherry blossom season, many famous cherry blossom viewing spots are temporarily closed, and most sakura festivals and illumination events have been cancelled13.

As mentioned, the crisis provoked by the new coronavirus has been brought to the world audience mostly linked to the situation of the Diamond Princess cruise, after erupting in the Hubei province of China in late December 2019. A passenger previously landed in Hong Kong tested positive with SAR-CoV-2. The Japanese authorities decided to quarantine the pleasure ship in Yokohama and the news got primetime world coverage, people understood the virus infection has escaped from China, so their travel plans started to be re-evaluated. In spite of the similar epidemiologic crisis involving the Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) some 17 years ago14, the confused Japanese authorities made some mistakes by not taking into consideration the real risk of infection among the very crowded cruise forced to quarantine without real prevention and protection measures in place for vacationers and crew. The Japanese authorities played down the risk of infection, ignored best medical practice for evacuating passengers, and activated only low-level protocols for dealing with outbreaks. Ultimately, twelve people died and more than 700 were infected, including some government officials15. The scandal was huge, the passengers' countries of origin started to evacuate their nationals, bringing them home, also importing the fears of infection in the respective countries. Probably was the time when the first planning to contain the soon-to-be pandemic had been put in place by western states, as the flight travel from China to various country in European Union were banned. The virus spread ashore, because Chinese returned to their resident countries outside mainland China or foreign tourist and business alike finalised their winter vacation in China and went back to Europe and the Americas, already infected. People returning from China (and soon from Italy, the second country affected at a larger scale after China) have been put into isolation or directly in institutionalised quarantine, if not already hospitalised with serious health conditions aggravated by the new coronavirus infection.

Diamond Princess was soon followed by some other vessels in troubles (A/N: at least five suspected cases at the time of this paper preparation) making efforts to receive approval to dock and disembark the vacationers16, once the virus has been confirmed and infected cases already recorded aboard and quarantine required17. As passengers of crew of many cruise ships were found to be infected with the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus (an estimated 21 cruise ships have had COVID-19 cases on board18), four major cruise lines, Carnival (which operates the Diamond Princess), Royal Caribbean, Norwegian and MSC, have agreed to suspend their cruise programme.

Governments around the world have introduced travel restrictions in the effort to contain the virus (see Graphic 1). The EU banned travellers from outside the bloc for 30 days in an unprecedented move to seal its borders because of the coronavirus crisis. Considering Europe as the infection source for US citizens (Italy is the new Wuhan), the US administration has banned travellers from European airports from entering the US. At the time of the paper preparation, 53 airlines have suspended or severely reduced flights as coronavirus-related travel restrictions shake the industry19 (government-imposed travel restrictions - initially to and from hotspots such as China, South-Korea, Italy and Iran as the virus spread outwards from Wuhan, and then more largely - including UK, Germany or Spain on the restricted flights list - and a huge reduction in the demand to all destinations has forced some airlines to temporarily suspend operations).

The travel industry has been badly damaged, with governments banning travel, airlines cutting flights and tourists cancelling business trips and holidays (airline and cruise being mostly struck). The reductions in passenger numbers has resulted in planes flying almost empty between airports (to maintain the landing slots) and the cancellation of flights. Data from the online flight tracking services shows that the flights number has taken a huge hit globally. The International Air Transport Association (IATA) estimated that the airline industry could lose between to US$ 252 billion of revenues globally due to the reduced number of passengers (a 19% loss in worldwide passenger revenues)20.

In order to contain the virus, freedom of travel (and of work) has been suspended. Security and safety request sacrifices, so the virtuous circle is broken and the freedoms and welfare are sacrificed.

The pandemic changed everything in the civilian aviation sector21. On 5 March 2020, the UK based FlyBe airline collapsed. The impact of coronavirus on flight bookings proved final straw for Europe's largest regional airline which was already struggling with rising fuel costs, low demand and fierce competition. The viral outbreak made its precarious financial situation worse22. On 2 April 2020, German leisure airline Thomas Cook Aviation announced it had filed for bankruptcy due to the new coronavirus pandemic23. Despite the collapse of parent company Thomas Cook Group on 23 September 2019, Thomas Cook Aviation of Germany continued operations together with sister airline Condor and considered the business safe and in good shape - this was not valid anymore once the pandemic erupted. Other airlines around the world from Asia to the Americas are checking their bank accounts and update business development plans to save themselves as the pandemic spread and the cure is not close.

Globalisation, crisis and tourism. Tourism and security - the effects

As the industry created for the purpose of moving people for rest, recreation or business, the tourism has reached a fantastic level nowadays due to developments in transport, telecommunications, economy, science and the need to get in touch with people from all over the world in the global world. We can say that we have to do with a Ying and Yang, with a symbiosis of interdependence between the development of tourism and the other economic branches, a process in which each one takes a step forward aided by the other and thus all finally achieve progress.

Globalisation and interdependence increase rapidly when the states follow policies towards trade liberalisation, freedom of investments and mobility of goods and people (labour). The (real) globalised world economy implies free (unrestricted) circulation of goods, labour forces and capital, with similar interest rate. In reality, the globalisation brings national borders penetrated but not irrelevant. Globalisation is not the equivalent of a universal human community. From a social point of view, direct contacts between individuals with various religious beliefs and own values have conducted to development, welfare but often to destructive conflicts. Social globalisation, as part wide globalisation concept, has facilitated the spread of people, cultures and ideas, but the oldest form of globalisation is the environment, the equivalent of various maladies spreading. The 14th century Plague epidemic originated from Asia and its spreading to Europe and the rest of the World resulted in the death of one third of the European population. At their turn, the Europeans exported diseases to the Americas during the 15-16 centuries, who let to the decimation of some 95% of the indigenous population.

The exercise of freedoms24 generates multiple risks on security, particularly in the form of a vicious circle. If during the state of normality, the freedoms, recognised as fundamental, guarantee the businessmen the freedom of decision, the workers the freedom of job choice and the consumers the freedom to choose between a wider variety of products, the state of emergency change the approach towards freedom. We have covered the connection between freedom and security in Silaşi and Simina (2019) and discussed the virtuous circle vs freedoms in Silaşi and Simina (2019). Freedom and security (with the related safety assurance measures) are interlinked. The legal migration of labour forces could bring economic consequences, such as demographic impact, competition on the labour market and increase of the informal economy or the criminality rate - freedom of travel is also applying to criminals along businessmen and seasonal workers (Silaşi and Simina, 2019:166). Exercise of freedom may also bring insecurity - a vicious circle during the state of normality.

But on the other hand, should the security and safety of the citizens are affected, as it is happening during the 2020 pandemic, the return to the state of normality could bring limitations to the exercise of freedoms.

The expansion of the security sphere to the 'security chain' comprising all the links of the disaster risk reduction chain (prevention, mitigation, response, reconstruction) makes it harder to define where security starts and normality ends - all the more since the four phases do not come to pass sequentially. This mean a blurring of spheres of normality and exception (Warner, 2013: 83-84). The restrictions and the lock-down imposed by the authorities in their efforts to limit the pandemic, with all associated measures to limit movement and nonessential business (with obligation to observe the quarantine), are in fact disrupting the virtuous circle and confirm the apparition of the vicious circle. During the state of emergency, too much freedom could be seen as a break of security, while the enforcement of security measures could limit the freedoms (mostly the freedom of movement, including the freedom of travel for the mobile workers).

Various measures to support public health systems, safeguard the economy and to ensure public order and safety have been put in place during the initial phase of the pandemic (because this is not over; the concerned authorities have estimated that the crisis may continue until June 2020, depending on the results of containment). The long-term macroeconomic recovery is vital. The short-term economic disruption may appear difficult, but guidance for long-term recovery will dictate the trajectory of macroeconomic growth (unfortunately, this is where the major risks lie)25. The world economies are connected and, regardless the number of infected persons in a certain country during the pandemic, the economic and social effects are felt at global scale. Health related restrictions imposed by governments have strong impacting business and the economy in general terms - the vicious circle. Although globalisation has been around for centuries, its contemporary form is more complex and faster the most important differences are tired of the digital revolution. Modern globalization operates at a much faster rate than its previous forms (as an example, the "Love-Bug" virus only needed three days in 2000 to spread the globe and to infect sufficient computers to be considered a severe threat26).

The pandemic already has tremendous effects on the economy. The global economy could grow at its slowest rate since 2009 due to the coronavirus outbreak, the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has warned. Major stock markets suffer their worst weekly performance since the 2008 financial crisis, with $1.5 trillion being wiped off the value of global shares27. The OECD SecretaryGeneral, Angel Gurría, assessed that the economic uncertainty created by the virus outbreak meant economies were already suffering a bigger shock than during the September 11 terror attacks or the 2008 financial crisis. And the reason is that we don't know how much it's going to take to fix the unemployment because we don't know how many people are going to end up unemployed. We also don't know how much it's going to take to fix the hundreds of thousands of small and medium enterprises who are already suffering.28While the number of job losses and company failures remains uncertain, OECD estimates countries would be dealing with the economic fallout "for years to come". Significant macroeconomic after-effects of the pandemics persist for about 40 years (Oscar, Singh and Taylor, 2020).

A coronavirus pandemic could hurt the global economy as much as the 2008 financial crisis, analysts have warned, as stock markets plunged again [...]. Many factories in China are now closed, some workers have been laid off and the effects are increasingly being felt in Europe as tourism suffers and companies warn of supply shortages. Countries accounting for 30 per cent of the world economy, including China, the engine of global growth, are already suffering serious consequences from the draconian measures taken to contain the virus. That has knock-on effects for countries that rely on Chinese goods and tourists29.

The world economy (or at the least the economies of global actors such as the US) sees a depression to follow. It is assessed that "situation increasingly resembles the early 1930s, when past certitudes no longer match present realities. The dividing line between a depression and a severe recession is murky at best. If we aren't there yet, we 're closer than at any time since World War II"30. Investors fear the spread of the coronavirus will destroy economic growth and that government action may not be enough to stop the decline31.

The labour market could endure a contraction, as a result of paralyzing the activity of some companies. Technical unemployment, redundancies, reduced work hours are phenomena that will lead to this fact. The risk of bankruptcy of companies will increase, which will affect the employment of the economy. Further, these contractions will be reflected in a lower consumption with implications on economic growth and standard of living32.

Air travel restriction all around the globe, docking of most of cruise vessels and postponement of their activity, along with the closing of most of tourism sector which would be benefiting of services provided by airlines and cruise companies has as well implications on labour market and on the daily life of migrant workers which were forced to return home when their job disappeared following the business limitations. Will only mention here the case of migrant workers originating from Philippine and Romania and the impact on the pandemic on their job and welfare.

Philippine depends heavily on remittances as being a major source of ship workers globally (also housekeeper and nanny for Europeans). Though most Filipinos are employed through land-based jobs, 330,859 people were at sea as of the end of 2018. Cruise ship work, thanks to its higher pay and the job's glamorous reputation, is highly sought after33. Now, their jobs are in peril, as well they welfare.

On the other hand, the Romanians (with reference to seasonal or mobile workers) found themselves in strange situations. In the first round, as the pandemic spread over the Northern Italy, closing businesses and especially tourism establishments, plus work in agriculture, the Romanian seasonal workers (non-residents) found themselves without work and faced precarious conditions. Their return to the home country was blocked by the measures taken both at an early stage by Romania, namely the suspension of all flights from Italy or from Romania to Italy, as well as by the measures taken by the other European states to manage and prevent the COVID-19 epidemic34. Based on the request for support filled in at some of the seven Romanian consulates existing in Italy35, the Romanian ministries of foreign affairs together with that of transport have organized several charter flights from Italy and France to facilitate the repatriation of citizens temporarily abroad for seasonal work reasons. In the second round... as soon as they arrived home (and being introduced in institutionalised quarantine for 14 days in hotels on the Black Sea shore), the Italian authorities wake up and noticed there are not sufficient workers to support the re-opening of the economy and the preparation of future crops in the Italian extensive agriculture which should support the continuation of fight with the pandemic36. Same signals have been received from Germany and from the UK. In such circumstances, the Romanian authorities should resolve the dilemma: how the seasonal workers are taken out from the (forced) quarantine and are sent back to Italy, Germany, UK or wherever they are of need. and who supports their transport back on the European farms and factories which are producing the goods later imported to the Romanian supermarkets (as up to 5 million of citizens are permanent migrants, equivalent of more than 2/3 of the entire workforce, the Romanian crops and constructions have started to benefit of the imported labour force mainly from the East Asia).

Austria also requests their Romanian doctors back. Because the health system of Austria is heavily dependent on medical staff from the Eastern Europe, many doctors and nurse shuttle back and forth, staying for weeks at a time at the Austrian hospitals. The country got the blame for not taking care of situation in the Alps during the ski season, which allowed famous resorts in Austrian Tyrol to become the source of infections with the new coronavirus for a large part of European countries: the Tyrolean village of Ischgl transformed itself from a "white winter's dream" to a prolonged nightmare for recent visitors, as the crowded winter resort proved to be the perfect incubator for the coronavirus37, later spread all around Europe: hundreds of tourists are believed to have contracted the coronavirus there and taken it home with them38. With some 13,000 confirmed COVID-19 cases, Austria desperately needs doctors and medical staff to support the effort. In spite of the need of same doctors in their countries of origin from the Easter Europe, Austria has managed to secure them at the end of March - 231 doctors were flown in to provide round-the-clock care in the region of Lower Austria, which organised chartered flights from Sofia (Bulgaria) and Timişoara (Romanian)39, to ensure that care is not disrupted by COVID-19 travel restrictions.

The European Commission has promptly intervened to support the European fight with the pandemic, by preparing the practical guidance to ensure the free movement of "critical workers"40. In this respect, the Commission has given the green light to the so-called "green corridor", that is, to the free movement of agricultural workers in the EU on a par with those in the health sector, as the best way to respond to the emergency of Italian agriculture. Taking into account the agriculture's importance in the national economy and of the specificity of the season - the time for ploughing, sowing and land preparation, engaging in farming work has been included between the activities excepted from the travel/work restrictions imposed by the Romanian authorities as part of measures to prevent a larger spread of the virus infection. At the same time, following the Italian request and in line with the EU recommendation on the "green corridor", the restrictions for those farm workers having seasonal contracts in the Italian farms will be lifted by Romania and the freedom of movement for this specific category of workers will be re-established, in spite of the state of emergency rules41.

Supply chain resilience is going to the biggest question before businesses in the coming years, and many issues of both sustainability and trust are going to be critical to understand the supply chain resilience and benefit from it. The pandemic, appeared in China which manufactures one-fifth of the world's goods, has brought in a new question-global supply chains are cost-effective, but how resilient are they? How can companies ensure that a health crisis in one part of the world does not cripple their entire supply chain? How resilient are these supply chains? In a world where the risks come from places that cannot be controlled by any border, trustworthy information flows become even more urgent to maintain supply chain resilience42. The dismantling of trade barriers in order to re-establish the supply chains is encouraged43. In the case of the European Union, the Commission issued new practical advice on how to implement its Guidelines for border management, in order to keep freight moving across the EU during the current pandemic44.

The pandemic is expected to have enormous economic consequences indeed, and it is also having a devastating impact on global education45. According to UNESCO figures, up to 1.3 billion learners around the world were not able to attend school or university as of end of March 2020. Missing school and training may influence the future of learning, the future of labour, with possible major consequences - both social and economic - on the long run.

Tourism and security. Freedoms, security and beyond - points of view

The modern interdependent globalisation, freedom and security are interconnected. The security and freedom are like the oxygen, easy to assume until you lack it and then you can't think of anything else, you miss it and you will do whatever needed to get it back.

The pandemic urged Government to enacting various measures to support public health systems, safeguard the economy and to ensure public order and safety. Emergency politics is the politics of fear and urgency, fear creates demand for protection and delivery which those who claim to be able to supply security - defence forces, insurance company, security services, civil engineers - are happy to provide. Similar to other advertisers, their job is to make people aware of latent needs and they are interested in playing on those fears (Warner, 2013: 83-84).

Disasters, however, are not automatically security issues. Epidemics, even the Spanish flu epidemic of 1918-19, were not considered security threats and were not treated in an exceptional mode.

There is no disaster without it being declared as such by an authoritative source. Calling a crisis in an exceptional administrative act, suspending normal rights, controls and procedures for the sake of national security [...]. It defines a lethal threat, legitimizing emergency legislation that legitimizes extraordinary measures. Disaster, catastrophe or crisis (threated here as near-synonyms) is thus a discursive construction of a situation or an event, with serious social and policy implications. Declaring something a disaster is tantamount to declaring something a vital threat, with one difference: a threat has not happened yet, while a disaster has happened, and is an admission that something is too overwhelming to deal with in routine mode. In setting aside normal rights and procedures and checks and balances, it accepts infringements on individual local or national sovereign rights. (Warner, 2013:78)

The role of human mobility restrictions on the containment and delay of the spread of contagious viruses, including the 2019-nCoV virus that is ravaging the world, has been generally acknowledged: Enhanced social distancing in the destination cities, and, if an epicentre can be identified as was the case for the city of Wuhan in China, a lockdown, can play crucial roles in "flattening" the daily infection cases curve, giving the stressed medical system a chance to regroup and deal with the onslaught of new infection cases (Fang, Wang and Yang, 2020:22).

The Wuhan lockdown on 23 January 2020 had a significant contribution to reducing the total infection cases outside of the city, even with the social distancing measures have been imposed later by other cities. Fang, Wang and Yang (2020: 21-22) estimate that the COVID-19 cases would be 64.81% higher in the 347 Chinese cities outside Hubei province, and 52.64% higher in 16 non-Wuhan cities inside Hubei, in the counterfactual world in which the city of Wuhan were not locked down. Although the research of Fang, Wang and Yang (2020) focuses exclusively on the effect of human mobility restrictions on the spread of 2019-nCoV virus in China, its estimated results can have general implications to other countries in their fight against the Novel Coronavirus.

We are in an unprecedented situation and the normal rules no longer apply46. Creative responses must match the unique nature of the crisis - and the magnitude of the response must match its scale. But regardless of the constitutional and legal arguments on the duration and the procedure for prolonging the state of emergency, it is extremely important to be aware that this exceptional situation will not be permanent. If the state of emergency were to persist, then it would become a state of normality where its end is no longer a priority. Important for all state institutions and for the members of the society is that it remains a priority to quickly deplete the state of emergency, to remain what it is, a state of temporary exception .47

Disasters bring political capital: a disaster enhances state legitimacy and legitimizes violence and expropriation of so-called 'eminent domain' (Warner, 2013: 84). Disasters and also their handling tend to create social disturbance, often amplified by the media, leading to political questions about risk and responsibility. At the same time, security sectors have a vested interest in presenting everything as a security issue. If there is a disagreement about the timing and intensity of security measures, authorities are to be held to account.

However, the security and safety do not represent the same concept, even if nowadays we tend to assimilate or to understand them together.

In this shift from safety to security, there is a shift from the protection of an individual right, a human right, to the protection of the community, public order and social order. At the same time, the tension between an individualistic conception of safety, which puts the person at the heart of the protection system, and a holistic conception, where social and political order is the supreme good to be protected, is old in law. However, most of the fundamental texts - Declaration of Human Rights, European Convention on Human Rights, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, retain the concept of 1789: the protection of the individual against arbitrariness and not the protection of public order and the restriction of individual freedoms on behalf of the latter. [...] The law is built on the following dictum: the freedom is the principle, the police measure is the exception. Considering the security as the first fundamental human right, the police (law enforcement) measures are not anymore against ones freedom. The concept of public order itself has more and more components: respect for the dignity of the human person (possibly opposable to his own freedom) and now "the values of living together" have been added to tranquillity, healthiness and public safety. There is an extension of the concept of public order, and therefore of the security problem, which absorbs the whole question of human rights. Security has absorbed all freedoms: it includes them, subordinates them to its principle. There is a continuing erosion of fundamental freedoms. In the name of security and public order, this notion of security is undermined, since the state can be coercive, restrict freedoms (Laure Ortiz, Revue Ballast, 2018)Ai.

The new coronavirus pandemic happens at the time when thousands of migrants were prepared to irregularly cross the land border between Turkey and Greece. Law enforcement agencies across the European Union are activated to manage a possible migration crisis, in parallel with the SAR-CoV-2 pandemic. At the same time, as part of the epidemiologic measures, the EU's external border should act as a security perimeter and that Member States and Schengen Associated

Countries should restrict any non-essential travelling from third countries into the EU+ area. They are allowed to refuse entry at the external borders to 'non-resident third-country nationals where they present relevant symptoms or have been particularly exposed to risk of infection and are considered to be a threat to public health (COM, 2020). But Germany, France, Denmark, Sweden, Norway and Austria are currently using the exception clause in the Schengen Borders Code by extending the period of random border checks49. According to the provision of the Schengen regulation, checks at the border are possible according to EU regulations if "there is a serious threat to public policy or internal security in a member state50". Actually, border checks should only be temporary. However, Dimitris Avramopoulos, the EU Commissioner for Migration, Home Affairs and Citizenship, called for reverting back to normal in the Schengen area: "If Schengen ceases to exist, Europe will die".

The pandemic is also an opportunity to rethink the modern office and its ecosystem, to move business and education in the digital environment51. This is an opportunity to think beyond the office and create a more harmonious and fruitful work-life balance. The epidemic crisis will also propel the adoption of automation and technology (including artificial intelligence) which was already happening at a rapid speed, and now shall only accelerate. The replacement of routine jobs with automation especially during a time of crisis is inevitable52.

The efforts of governments to combat the global spread of the coronavirus had a significant impact on the serious and organised crime landscape as well, due to the decreased mobility and flow of people and the decreased supply of goods or the disruption of the supply chains in line with the movement limitations. At the same time, the supply of certain illicit goods has been affected, forcing the criminal organisation to adapt their actions. While governments and people are busy with the fight of the crisis and with providing support to those in need, the pandemic and related measures offer opportunities to criminals to exploit the crisis. Criminals have adapted their modi operandi or have already engaged in new criminal activities, exploiting the crisis, and mainly the increased anxiety and fear of the (un-informed) population (Europol, 2020). Various fraud schemes to capitalise on the anxieties and fears of victims throughout the crisis have been reported53.

In time of pandemic, social distance (physical distance in fact) is required/imposed, direct contact and interaction between human beings are limited, while teleworking, use of social media and the online purchase is recommended and even encouraged. The (recommended) online activity could be an issue especially for the elderly or those unaccustomed with or unaware on the security over internet and secure online payments, often using outdated security systems and thus offering a window of opportunity to cybercriminals. With a record number of potential victims locked-down at home and using online services for work, study, shopping and entertainment during the pandemic, most crimes have been recorded in relation with cyber scams and attacks (Europol, 2020 B).

The virus outbreak reminds us as well on the connections with (or the implications of) the climate change. The lockdowns and social distancing caused by the coronavirus are giving humanity a taste of the disruptions to daily life that will be caused by climate change. This crisis reveals how fragile our current way of life has become: in modern industrial societies, the fallout from Covid-19 feels like a dress rehearsal for the kind of collapse that climate change threatens5. There is any known direct link between global warming and Covid-19, but animals are moving to cooler zones, bringing them and the diseases they carry in closer contact with humans (i.e. epidemiologists consider the SAR-CoV-2 came from bats). The first effects of climate change are disasters such as the wildfires in Australia and California, African hurricanes, South Asian typhoons and harvest collapses in the Middle East. Because those factors can disrupt wildlife migration, the second effects of climate change are pandemics55 [we may also add climate change related human migration waves, as jobs disappear in deserted lands]. In this respect, policy makers and business leaders must recognize that climate change will be even more disruptive than the coronavirus. The economic and social crisis - emerged as result of the epidemiologic crisis - reveal how fragile the current way of life has become. Social distance and isolation measures (which are temporary imposed during the pandemic, in order to stop/reduce the spread of the virus), will become part of the daily life in the years to come56, soreturning to business as usual is a "fantasy". The lockdowns and social distancing caused by the pandemic are giving humanity a taste of the disruptions to daily life that will be caused by climate change in a not very far future57. The climate change has already started to affect the daily life all around the world.

The crisis of the coronavirus is teaching us that leadership is about simultaneously considering the localised impact of the global58. A critical questions that business leadership will face once the coronavirus crisis is over is - what will be the future of consumption? Man cannot live by Netflix alone. Technology and automation can resolve (and eliminate) any human problems of labour. It is emphasising that one thing that is easy to forget - businesses need customers. And if the ecosystem is brutally damaged, no matter how automated, how artificial intelligence (AI)-ready the business is, its success is in peril without customers (coming to the point: the travel and tourism sector do need vacationers and businessmen to travel!).

What comes next? What is the future of the pandemic, what comes after? There are several questions to be addressed in order to get the real picture on security tourism nexus and of the interconnections between globalised security and tourism. Understanding the geopolitics of Asia (and mainly of China) and how it intersects with the world will make possible to understand why travel is resilient and why the travel and tourism centre will remain in Asia in a post-coronavirus world. The world is already Asian. If you have 60 percent of the world population in Asia, and you have more than 50 percent of global GDP in Asia, and most of the world's military powers and nuclear arsenals and mega corporations are already in Asia. So present is Asian, let alone the future59

Security of freedom? How to solve this conceptual crisis? Security is the defining element of existence, freedom is a form of life, but if there is no security, there can be no freedom, no freedom can function. On the other hand, security may in turn be the equivalent of freedom restriction. This does not mean that the society enters a phase of dictatorship or deprivation of liberty, or the elimination of liberty, but freedom does not make sense and cannot manifest outside security. The application of the Schengen agreements has shown in practice that freedom cannot be reconciled with security, freedom of movement may have security implications, while law enforcement may bring limitations to the freedom of movement of people/workers, goods and capital. Schengen cannot function properly, because the European society has not reached that level where both security and freedom can coexist in parallel.

Sidebar

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr Ovidiu Laurian SIMINA is research fellow at the Timisoara based Center for Migration and Security Studies (SISEC) which he co-founded in 2006 as a research unit focusing on migration and mobility studies. Dr Simina covers labour migration, migration and mobility, migration security nexus, migration and religion connections, and transnationalism and interactions within the Romanian Diaspora.

Professor Grigore SILAŞI, PhD, Jean Monnet Professor, is Emeritus Professor at the West University of Timisoara and Professor of Economics at Ioan Slavici University of Timisoara. He is director of the Center for Migration and Security Studies (SISEC), which he created as a project under the first Romanian Jean Monnet European Center of Excellence established in 2011 at the West University of Timisoara. Prof Silasi focuses on European integration, diplomacy, European economy and law. During his long academic career, he has coordinated more than 50 PhD thesis in economics.

Dr George Bogdan MARINESCU is associate professor at the National College for Home Affairs of the Alexandru Ioan Cuza Police Academy and at the University of Piteşti - Faculty of Education Sciences, Social Sciences and Psychology. He covers European security, and CSDP/CFSP, EU-NATO relations, public security, organizational sociology, leadership and group's sociopsychology.

Disclaimer

The views expressed in this article represent the personal opinions of the authors, not implying the entities they are representing or the institutions and organisations they are professionally active in.

Footnote

1 The Spring Festival travel season or the Chunyun is the occasion of the annual largest human migration in the world, with up to 3 billion passenger journeys estimated. Some 415 million Chinese on the move in 2019 for this celebration - in practice, all China takes holiday at once. For migrant workers abroad, the Chinese Lunar New Year is often the only time during the year when they spend time with their families on mainland China. More details in Chinese New Year: The World's Largest Human Migration Is About To Begin, by Niall McCarthy for Statista, 22 January 2020, retrieved on 07.04.2020 from https://www.statista.com/chart/12916/the-worlds-largest-migration-isabout-to-begin/ and World's biggest mass migration begins as China prepares to mark New Year by Helen Coffey for Independent, 17 January 2020, available on 07.04.2020 at https://www.independent.co. uk/travel/news-and-advice/chinese-lunar-new-year-massmigration-spring-festival-flights-trains-a9288301.html

2 Volcanic Eruptions: Science And Risk Management by Bente Lilja Bye for Science 2.0, 27 May 2011, available on 07.04.2020 at https://www.science20.com/plane1bye/volcanic_ eruptions_science_and_risk_management-79456. The crisis created by the Eyjafjallajökull eruption has triggered decision at the still to be created external action body of the European Union to take seriously the contingency planning and preparation of consular and rescue support measures for EU citizens in the need, especially during their travel and tourist activities which are stricken by various hazards or crisis outside the EU.

3 Bombs attacks in Istanbul (45 killed at Atatürk Istanbul Airport) or in Ankara, unrest in the south-east of the country plus a violent failed coup (with at least 240 people killed) were some of the unsecure ingredients of the 2016 Turkish tourist season of 2016 which have kept tourists away. Also, the Syrian war and Turkey involvement keep worsening the situation.

4 For more details on the sakura season in Japan, see https://livejapan.com/en/artidea0001033/

5 Sakura forecast as planning tool at https://www.japan-experience.com/update/cherryblossoms-in-japan-2020-forecast

6 Japan independent travel advices at<https://www.theinvisibletourist.com/best-time-to-visitjapan-for-cherry-blossoms /

7 Travel and tourism sector represented 7.4% of the Japanese economy in 2019, supporting 4.9 million jobs or 6.9 % of total employment in the country which maintains its position as the third-largest travel and tourism economy in the world, according to the World Travel & Tourism Council's (WTTC) annual review of the economic impact and social importance of the sector. More details available at https://www.wttc.org/about/media-centre/pressreleases/press-releases/2019/japan-retains-position-as-3rd-largest-travel-and-tourismeconomy-in-the-world-says-new-wttc-research

8 Japan's 2011 Earthquake, Tsunami and Nuclear Disaster. Economic Impact on Japan and the Rest of the World, by Kimberly Amadeo for The Balance, updated 29 January 2020, retrieved online from https://www.thebalance.com/japan-s-2011-earthquake-tsunami-andnuclear-disaster-3305662

9 See Japan expected to declare state of emergency as early as Tuesday, The Guardian, retrieved on 06.04.2020 from https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2020/apr/06 and https://the-japan-news.com/news/article/0006471386

10 Making it safe: tourism after Japan's earthquake, by David Beirman for The Conversation, 18 April 2012, retrieved online at 06.04.2020 from http://theconversation.com/making-it-safe-tourism-after-japans-earthquake-5691

11 Returning Japanese, by Justin McCurry for The Guardian, 7 Oct 2011, available online on 06.04.2020 at https://www.theguardian.com/travel/2011/oct/07/japan-tourism-after-tsunami

12 Katsuhiro Miyamoto from Kansai University highlights the financial importance of hanami, as quoted in Japan cherry blossom season wilted by the coronavirus pandemic, by Peter Hoskins for BBC, retrieved on 06.04.2020 from https://www.bbc.com/news/business51829851. Prof Miyamoto estimated that almost 8.5m tourists visited Japan during the cherry blossom season between March and May 2019, bringing in some 650 billion yen ($6bn; £5.2bn).

13 Cherry Blossom Forecast 2020, updated 6 April 2020, available at https://wwwjapanguide.com/sakura

14 Can We Learn Anything from the SARS Outbreak to Fight COVID-19?, consulted at https://www.healthline.com/health-news/has-anything-changed-since-the-2003-sarsoutbreak. A wider coverage and analysis on crisis prevention could be find at https://www.ncbi.nlm. nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3322925/ and https://www. bbc. com/ news/world-asia-china-51221394 or https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK92479/

15 For a wider coverage of the Diamond Princess case, the selected list of links for online content could be consulted: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/08/world/asia/ coronavirus-cruise-ship.html; https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/ mar/06/inside-the-cruise-ship-that-became-a-coronavirus-breeding-ground-diamondprincess; https://www.statista. com/statistics/1099517/japan-coronavirus-patientsdiamond-princess; https://www.vice.com/en_uk/article/v74zjy/the-coronavirus-cruiseship-was-a-disease-spreading-hellscape

16 Coronavirus: cruise passengers stranded as countries turn them away, Ben Doherty and Dom Phillips for The Guardian, 16 March 2020, consulted on 06.04.2020 on https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/mar/16/cruise-ships-scramble-to-find-safeharbour-amid-covid-19-crisis-as-countries-turn-them-away

17 Failures on the Diamond Princess Shadow Another Cruise Ship Outbreak, by Matt Apuzzo, Motoko Rich and David Yaffe-Bellany for The New York Times, 8 March 2020, at https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/08/world/asia/coronavirus-cruise-ship.html. More coverage on the thousand vacationers in limbo around the world as their cruises seek ports at which to dock and disembark people: https://www.cbsnews.com/news/carinval-cruise-ship6000-passengers-at-sea-coronavirus; https://thepointsguy.com/news/cruise-line-shiplocations-coronavirus-shutdown; https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/cruise-ships-strandedcoronavirus-trnd/index.html

18 Story available at https://www.cruisehive.com/21-cruise-ships-with-a-u-s-port-affected-bycovid-19/38939

19 For details see situation at https://www.businessinsider.com/coronavirus-global-airlinessuspending-operations-as-demand-worsens-2020-3 (information valid on 07.04.2020)

20IATA Press Release no. 12 of 05.04.2020 - IATA Updates CoVID-19 Financial Impacts - Relief Measures Needed, https://www.iata.org/en/pressroom/pr/2020-03-05-01/. More coverage at https://www.weforum. org/agenda/2020/03/this-chart-shows-how-airlinesare-being-grounded-by-covid-19; https://www.cnbc.com/2020/03/20/its-a-critical-timefor-governments-to-help-airlines-hit-by-coronavirus-says-analyst.html; https://romania. europalibera.org/a/compani-aeriene-masuri-anti-coronavirus-ce-seintampla-cu-zboruri-italia/30476198.html;https://www.dw.com/ro/coronavirusullove%C8%99te-direct-%C3%AEn-bran%C8%99a-avia%C8%9Biei/a-52619229

21 Most airlines could be bankrupt by May. A wide coverage of the COVID-19 impact on aviation, with continuously updated data: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_of _the_2019%E2%80%9320_coronavirus_pandemic_on_aviation

22 For a wider coverage: https://www.businessinsider.com/uk-airline-flybe-declaresbankruptcy-flights-grounded-2020-3 and https://www.theguardian.com/business/ 2020/mar/05/flybe-collapses-two-months-after-government-announces-rescue

23 https://www.aviation24.be/airhnes/thomas-cook-group/coronavirus-thomas-cook-aviationfiles-for-bankruptcy

24our research covered only the freedom of movement/labour within the European Union, but the freedom of movement is a general and guaranteed right, part of the human rights, so the approach could be extended to the general right of freedom of movement for the human beings.

25 'Pandenomics ' - How COVID19 is Changing Business ^Society, by Andrei Rogobete for The Centre for Enterprise, Markets and Ethics (CEME) in Oxford, UK, http://theceme.org/andrei-rogobete-pandenomics-how-covid-19-is-changing-businesssociety/?fbclid=IwAR0JZmexuHgLTZ6keY_Kvw-bXYE6kpcZRUqeKeyxBaboAOh XQn4gguLc7HA

26 It is estimated that the so-called "Love-Bug" email virus has caused some $10 billion in losses in as many as 20 countries. For details, see https://www.wsws.org/en/ articles/2000/05/bug-m10.html

27 Coronavirus: Global growth 'could halve' if outbreak intensifies, BBC News online article on2 March 2020, consulted on 04.04.2020 on https://www.bbc.com/news/ business-51700935

28 Global economy will suffer for years to come, says OECD, by Szu Ping Chan forBBC News, 23 March 2020, retrieved on 06.04.2020 from https://www.bbc.com/news/business52000219

29 Coronavirus pandemic could cause as much economic damage as 2008 financial crisis, experts warn. Stock markets plunge into a correction as panic grips markets and economists warn of global economic impact, by Ben Chapman for Independent, 27 February 2020, retrieved from https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/coronavirus-pandemiceconomy-impact-damage-dow-jones-stock-market-a9363691.html

30 For the first time in my life, I think a depression is conceivable, by Robert J. Samuelson for The Washington Post, 2 April 2020, retrieved on 06.04.2020 from https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/our-economy-may-be-sliding-toward-adepression/2020/04/01/fba28736-7457-11ea-87da-77a8136c1a6d_story.html

31 UK travel industry experts have also expressed concerns about Chinese tourists being kept at home, considering that there were 415,000 visits from China to the UK in the 12 months to September 2019, so the economic gap due to missing tourists is huge. For more details on the UK situation, see Coronavirus: A visual guide to the economic impact, by Lora Jones, David Brown & Daniele Palumbo for BBC News, 3 April 2020, retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/business-51706225

32 Zece lecţii de economie pe care coronavirusul ni le dã [Ten economic lessons offered by the coronavirus] by Bogdan Cãpraru on HotNews.ro, 20 March 2020, retrieved on 06/04.2020 from https://economie.hotnews.ro/stiri-finante_banci-23737522-zece-lectii-economie-carecoronavirusul.htm

33 See https://nypost.com/2020/03/19/food-service-workers-were-main-carriers-ofcoronavirus-on-diamond-princess

34 The topic has been largely covered by Romania media, as seen at http://www.ziare.com/diaspora/romam-italia/mae-anunta-ca-romami-angajati-sezonier-initalia-vor-fi-adusi-acasa-cu-curse-aeriene-speciale-primul-zbor-va-fi-sambata-1602556 or https://www.gazetaromaneasca.com/diaspora/cine-vrea-sa-plece-din-italia-mae-organizeazatransportul-pe-21-martie-pleaca-primul-avion/ and https://www.biziday.ro/ministerul-deexterne-anunta-ca-romanii-angajati-sezonier-in-italia-nerezidenti-vor-fi-adusi-in-tara-cucurse-aeriene-speciale-primul-zbor-va-fi-maine-de-la-torino/

35 Romania has a very large Diaspora in Italy: the Romanians count as the second nationality in the North of Italy after the Italians.

36 L'Italia cerca l'accordo con la Romania per riaprire il flusso degli stagionali nei campi [Italy seeks agreementwith Romania to re-open the flux of seasonal workers for the farms], by Micaela Cappellini for Il Sole 24 Ore, 04.04.2020, https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/l-italia-cerca-l-accordo-la-romania-riaprire-flussostagionali-campi-ADZoZ5H?fbclid=IwAR0Q6l5y_bdwz0i4eeWDFlxQ40OV2Fncgw 5A2ECe9wouaruRT6ongUYIFBs&refresh_ce=1. Romania mass media has also covered this: https://www.digi24.ro/stiri/economie/italienii-disperati-dupa-plecarea-muncitorilorromani-ministrul-agriculturii-cere-romaniei-sa-ii-lase-urgent-inapoi-la-munca-1286536

37 The Austrian ski town that spread coronavirus across the Continent, by Matthew Karnitschnig in POLITICO, 19 March 2020, retrieved on 08.04.2020 from https://www.politico.eu/article/the-austrian-ski-town-that-spread-coronavirus-across-thecontinent

38 How an Austrian ski paradise became a COVID-19 hotspot, by Philipp Grüll for EURACTIV.de, 20 March 2020, rretrieved (translated by Sarah Lawton) on 08.04.2020 from https://www.euractiv.com/section/coronavirus/news/ischgl-oesterreichisches-skiparadies-alscorona-hotspot/

39 Austria imports workers from Bulgaria, Romania to plug gaps in COVID-19 care, EURACTIV.com with AFP, 31 March 2020, retrieved on 06.04.2020 from https://www.euractiv.com/section/economy-jobs/news/austria-imports-workers-frombulgaria-romania-to-plug-gaps-in-covid-19-care/

40 The Commission has issued practical advice to ensure that mobile workers within the EU, in particular those in critical occupations to fight the coronavirus pandemic, can reach their workplace. This includes but is not limited to those working in the health care and food sectors, and other essential services like childcare, elderly care, and critical staff for utilities. This also apply to good transportation, which should use the -green corridors" at the border check points. The more seamless (and 'borderless') this process, the more the supply chain is deemed to be efficient.

41 Because the spirit of mutual support keeps the European Union member states united in diversity, the Romanian agriculture and health services could be put on hold, until the migrant workers decide to repatriate. Being part of the European family allows Romania to benefit of a similar deal as some 60 years ago, but with another type of family member: Romania provides the EU member states with its most educated students and the experienced constructors, and he EU takes the best prepared agriculture workers and the skilled medical staff.

42 Coronavirus and the age of supply chain resilience, by Hindol Sengupta for Fortune India, 4 April 2020, retrieved on 06.04.2020 from https://www.fortuneindia.com/polemicist/ coronavirus-and-the-age-of-supply-chain-resilience/104384

43'Solidarity, hope' and coordinated global response needed to tackle COVID-19 pandemic, says UN Chief, United Nations virtual press-conference on 19 March 2020, consulted on 06.04.2020 from https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/03/1059752 https://amp-lefigaro-fr.cdn.ampproject.org/c/s/amp.lefigaro.fr/politique/le-manque-desolidarite-est-un-danger-mortel-pour-l-europe-selon-jacques-delors-20200328

44 Coronavirus: Commission presents practical guidance to ensure continuous flow of goods across EU via green lanes, European Commission, Press Release, 23 March 2020 https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_20_510

45 COVTD-19's staggering impact on global education, by Niall McCarthy for World Economic Forum, 26 March 2020, retrieved on 06.04.2020 from https://www.weforum.org/ agenda/2020/03/infographic-covid19-coronavirus-impact-global-education-health-schools

46UN Press Release on the speech of the UN Chief Antonio Guterres on https://news.un.org/en/story/2020/03/1059752

47Cât dureazã starea de urgenţã [How long the state of emergency lasts?] by Bogdan Dima for G4media.ro, 4 April 2020, available on 08.04.2020 at https://www.g4media.ro/catdureaza-starea-de-urgenta.html. The academic debate brings the increasingly prevalent idea that since 11 September 2001, the world has moved into a state of permanent emergency and an abandonment of the rule of law. The historical developments in the 20th century have actually placed emergency powers at the heart of the rule of law as a means of administering capitalist modernity. This suggests we need to rethink our understanding of the role of emergency measures in the "war on terror" and, more generally, to reconsider the relationship between the rule of law and violence. For an extended opinion, in relation with the recent French legislation against terrorism, please see Marianne's liberty in jeopardy? A French analysis on recent counterterrorism legal developments: https://www.researchgate.net/pubhcation/334169551_Marianne's_hberty_inJeopardy_A_Fre nch_analysis_on_recent_counterterrorism_legal_developments

48 La sécurité a absorbé toutes les libertes [Security has absorbed all freedoms], interview of Laure Ortiz for Revue Ballast, 8 January 2018, retrieved on 06.04.2020 from https://www.revue-ballast.ir/laure-ortiz-securite-a-absorbe-toutes-libertes

49 Border controls: state of emergency becoming state of normality, by Albrecht Meier for Der Tagesspiegel, 15 April 2019 (translated by Daniel Eck), available at https://www.euractiv.com/section/justice-home-a0airs/news/border-controls-state-ofemergency-becoming-state-of-normality/

50 The deployment of the German Federal Police at the German-Austrian border began at the height of the refugee crisis in September 2015, and has since been repeatedly extended.

51 As the online purchase and the education made the shift - the crisis and the lock-down have offered various ministries of education the perfected opportunity to check the appeal for digital learn in the society still not yet linked/addicted to Internet based knowledge but using instead a mix of methods of teaching (both digital and analogic), without clear results, name the Romanian case.

52 Coronavirus and the future of the officeby Hindol Sengupta for Fortune India, 12 March 2020, retrieved on 06.04.2020 from https://www.fortuneindia.com/polemicist/coronavirusand-the-future-of-the-office/104255

53 Corona crimes: Suspect behind €6 million face masks and hand sanitisers scam arrested thanks to international police cooperation, Europol Press Release, 6 April 2020, retrieved from https://www.europol.europa.eu/newsroom/news/corona-crimes-suspect-behind%E2%82%AC6-milhon-face-masks-and-hand-sanitisers-scam-arrested-thanks-tointernational-police-cooperation

54 Professor Sees Climate Mayhem Lurking Behind Covid-19 Outbreak, by Saijel Kishan, for Bloomberg Green, 28 March 2020, retrieved on 07.04.2020 from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-03-28/professor-sees-climate-mayhemlurking-behind-covid-19-outbreak

55 Professor Sees Climate Mayhem Lurking Behind Covid-19 Outbreak, by Saijel Kishan for Bloomberg Green, 28 March 2020, retrieved on 07/04/2020 from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-03-28/professor-sees-climate-mayhemlurking-behind-covid-19-outbreak

56 Cercetãtor britanic: Criza Covid-19 este o repetiţie pentru ce va urma în 10 ani [UK researcher - COVID19 crisis is a repetition for what follows in 10 years], Stirileprotv.ro, 07.04.2020 at https://stirileprotv.ro/stiri/international/cercetator-britanic-criza-covid-19-este-orepetitie-pentru-ce-va-urma-in-10-ani.html

57 The vicious circle is again clearly revealed: scarcity of resources (including food) [security of procurement chain] let to intensive land exploitation producing erosion and deforestation, plus over-industrialisation which come with land, water and air pollution, all these with proven influence on climate change. Climate factors further endanger crops and food production, thus resources are even scare. People movements are added, tensions between populations (countries) in the fight of resources are created. Limitation of freedoms and conflicts follow, security and safety decrease, welfare disappears.

58 Leadership lessons from the Coronavirus pandemic by Hindol Sengupta for Fortune India, 25 March 2020, retrieved on 06.04.2020 from https://www.fortuneindia.com/polemicist/ leadership-lessons-from-the-coronavirus-pandemic/104318

59 Why Asia Is Still the Future of Travel in a Post-Coronavirus World, by Rafat Ali for Skift, 04 march 2020, retrieved on 06.04.2020 from https://skift.com/2020/03/04/why-asia-is-stinthe-future-of-travel-in-a-post-coronavirus-world/

References

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