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Models of minority ethnic identity and White identity development are described along with examples of ways in which the models can be used as heuristics for helping students to think about their own and others' ethnicity. Ethnic or racial identity formation depends on a process of exploration that includes questioning preexisting ethnic attitudes and searching into the past and present experiences of one's group and its relations with other groups. This process leads ideally to the development of a secure, positive sense of one's identity as a member of an ethnic or racial group, together with an acceptance of other groups. By exploring their own and others' ethnic identity students can gain insight into the implications of ethnicity in a diverse society.
Social scientists interested in understanding and teaching about ethnic diversity face a difficult task. The topic of ethnicity lacks a clear theoretical framework and has only a limited empirical base. Although most people have a commonsense notion of ethnicity, precise delineations of specific American ethnic groups are almost impossible. Because of the differences within ethnic groups, for example, in acculturation, generation of immigration, social class, and regional influences, there is wide variation in the cultural norms and values maintained by members of an ethnic group. Group members differ also in the degree to which they have joined the American mainstream or remained in ethnic enclaves. In addition, increasing numbers of individuals from mixed ethnic backgrounds cannot be assigned to a single group and thus blur the boundaries of ethnic groups (Phinney & ., 1996). For these reasons, there is limited value in attempting to describe ethnic groups objectively in generalizations assumed to apply to all members of the group (Phinney, 1996).
In contrast to approaches that aim at objective descriptions of particular ethnic groups, the study of ethnic identity involves an emphasis on how group members themselves understand and interpret their own ethnicity. Individuals vary in the degree to which they identify with their ascribed ethnic group and the extent to which their group identity is salient and significant to them. Some people have a clear sense of commitment to their group; others feel confused and conflicted about their ethnicity. Some have strong positive emotional ties to their group, whereas others wish...