1. Introduction
A rapid decline in plant diversity, mainly due to human involvement, is considered a major driver of changes in the ecosystem [1,2,3]. The high plant diversity promotes ecosystem multifunctionality, ensures the sustainability of the rangeland, and provides various services to mankind, as supported by comprehensive experimental studies [4,5]. Therefore, gathering reliable information on species diversity is needed to help wildlife managers properly plan and formulate efficient conservation actions [6,7]. Natural forests provide a wide range of ecosystem services and are considered a critical habitat for biodiversity [8] as this accounts for the ecological structure, functions and processes in forest ecosystems [9]. Aside from providing food, medicine, fuel and other necessities to billions of people, forests also support water-flow regulation and carbon storage and provide services such as habitat preservation, pollution control and soil protection [10]. Knowledge of plant species diversity, composition and viability is essential to achieving more efficient forest preservation and conservation via policymaking and management [11,12]. Technical exploration and inventorisation of biodiversity provide important data for studying aspects of conservation and sustainable use [13,14,15] and also help in monitoring changes in plant communities over time [16,17,18]. Plant communities and their structure can be assessed and explored through field sampling and then by arranging the species into various categories that reflect their dependency and relationship with the existing environmental parameters [19,20,21]. However, these studies can be costly and time-consuming and depend on the total area chosen for study. Therefore, efficient methodologies and tools that estimate and assess species diversity are needed [9,22]. For this, one parameter considered is the plant communities categorised based on leaf form and leaf size spectra [23,24]. An investigation of the biological spectrum (BS) and floristic composition is considered an important study in comparing the geographical separation of different plant communities and is also used as an indicator to investigate environmental changes over time [12,25]. The BS is also considered an indicator of the prevailing conditions of the environment favouring the growth of plant species and environmental stress, if any, faced by the residing species in that particular environment [26]. The phenological attributes, such as life forms (LFs), leaf spectra (LS) and other phenotypic features, reflect the existing ecological conditions, microclimate and evolutionary processes that help in understanding the pattern of species’ lifecycles [27,28,29,30]. Thus, it can be used for assessing the ecological health of the given ecosystem [31,32,33,34,35,36,37,38]. Raunkiaer’s normal spectrum shows a phanerophytic community, and the deviation from the normal spectrum determines the phytoclimatic nature of the vegetation of an ecological habitat [39]. The difference between Raunkiaer’s normal spectrum and the biological spectrum of life forms helps to determine the dominant life forms that characterise the phytoclimate of a given ecosystem [40]. Therefore, the study of BS is one of the important factors in ecological studies and the description of vegetation rankings next to floristic composition and biodiversity surveys [41,42].
Approximately 3% of the world’s surface has a high mountainous region [42,43], and most of the species’ diversity is concentrated in the hills and valleys [44]. Mountainous environments provide a home to various endemic, rare and threatened species [45,46], but in the recent past, climate change and land use patterns have played critical roles in species threats with respect to the exploitation of this natural heritage in most parts of the globe [47,48,49,50]. This is one of the main reasons for attracting more research activities in the mountains, including botanisation and registering the collection of plant species of great value [51]. In particular, coniferous forests have great importance worldwide, both from an ecological point of view and in the face of climate change [52,53,54,55,56,57,58,59]. The Indian Himalayas are one of the mountainous belts rich in both biological and cultural diversity [60,61]. It covers a 70,074.54 km2 area, distributed as tropical, subtropical, temperate, sub-alpine and alpine ecosystems enriched with 50% of Indian species [62,63]. Interestingly, plant communities of the Himalayas have been a major attraction for research since ancient times [64,65,66,67,68,69,70,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91], but still, many interior regions in the Himalayas are found to be unexplored, which needs botanical investigation and proper documentation.
The Bhallesa Hills are considered a part of the Pir Panjal mountain range, situated in the district of Doda in the Indian union territory of Jammu and Kashmir (J and K), and is one of the unexplored belts of the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot. This belt of Himalayas is bestowed with a typical mountainous climate, the beauty of lofty mountains and unique vegetation, attracting botanists and forest department planners in the recent few years for the study of natural resources. With this research, we have attempted, for the first time, to investigate the biological spectrum and floristic composition of Bhallesa Hills. We reveal that the data on the phytoclimate variables and floristic composition of this region can transmit a lot of knowledge to mankind and fill the gap of one of the unexplored belts of the Himalayas. We hypothesised that climate change in the current scenario might decrease ecosystem functioning and lead to a loss of plant diversity. In this research, we specifically tried to address the current state of knowledge and research gaps on floristic diversity and the threatened species in the absence of any such previous attempts for Jammu and Kashmir. The major aim of this study was to assess the plant assemblages in the Himalayas coniferous forests of temperate and alpine ecosystems and understand species diversity and their phenological behaviours leading to different lifeforms. In this study, we selected the coniferous forests of Bhallesa Hills and then analysed the species’ diversity, lifeforms, phenology and leaf size spectra of coniferous plants. Key questions, such as (a) how diverse are the life forms of plants from different altitudinal gradients in coniferous forests of the temperate and alpine climate of the Himalayas, and how are they distributed in a drastic cold climate? (b) What are the key drivers controlling the population of different plant community compositions? (c) Do species of plants of special interest (from a conservation point of view) occur in the studied forest regions? Based on the results, we have attempted to discuss the species diversity, species richness, growth forms, phenology and species of conservation importance.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
Plant species were sampled from the Bhallesa Hills, having typical Himalayan temperate mixed-coniferous and alpine forests, which come under the Pir Panjal mountainous belts of Kashmir Himalaya. This study site lies between the latitude of 32°54′ to 33°05′ N and a longitude of 75°55′ to 75°51′ E (Figure 1). The altitude varies from 1500 to 4500 m above sea level (m.a.s.l.), having an area of approximately 950 km2. The Kalguni river originates from Bhallesa Hills and serves as a lifeline for the local inhabitants residing in the lower valleys of the study area. Due to the less connectivity to towns and the lack of modern health facilities, the people mostly rely on this river and the available forest resources for their livelihood. According to the 2011 Indian Census, the total population of the Bhallesa region recorded was 71,889 people, with a density of 94 people per km2. The population of males was 36,754 persons, whereas the number of females was 35,135 persons. The difference in the altitudinal gradients leads to species variations coupled with climate change and nutrient resources. However, the temperate climate prevails in the lower regions of the Bhallesa belts, whereas the upper reaches enjoy a cold alpine climate. During the investigation (2018–2021), the maximum temperature recorded was 31.5 °C in June, and the minimum temperature was 7.8 °C in January. The forest vegetation composition leading to plant species diversity varies depending on the altitude. In the lower regions, plant communities are characterised by temperate mixed forest species, such as Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook., Fraxinus excelsior L., Acer caesium Wall. ex Brandis and Pinus wallichiana A.B.Jacks. As the altitudinal gradient increases, the typical Himalayan coniferous tree species, such as Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don, Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss., Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Royle and Betula utilis D.Don dominates the forests. The sub-alpine and alpine meadows were represented by typical high-altitude Himalayan bushy shrubs and hardy herbaceous species of the genera Berberis L., Androsace L., Anemone L., Gentiana Tourn ex L., Impatiens Riv. ex L. and Primula L.; species, such as Jaeschkea oligosperma Knobl., Cynoglossum wallichii G.Don, Codonopsis ovata Benth., Salvia hians Royle ex Benth. Morina longifolia Wall. ex DC. and Thermopsis barbata Benth. were the other dominant species found in the herbaceous community. No tree species were recorded at the alpine belts; however, few open pockets were recorded to have a stagnant growth of Juniperus recurva Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don., Juniperus communis L. and Syringa emodi Wall. ex Royle. The upper regions of the study area, with more than 2000 m amsl, experience heavy snowfall from December to February; the alpine zones remain covered with snow for about six months, whereas the lower reaches (<2000 m a.m.s.l.) receive snowfall for about one month. For the past few decades, annual rainfall has been recorded to be very little and varies from 920 to 940 mm. The physiographic factors (relief, slope, altitude) are strikingly apparent in the soil formation in the Bhallesa Hills and other mountainous regions of the Western Himalayas.
The soils, in general, were recorded to be shallow, mostly skeletal, coarse-textured, calcareous and strongly alkaline in nature. The soil scape of the lower reaches is represented by cryorthents and cryorthids and is shallow, coarse-textured and low in organic matter. The low to medium organic carbon contents recorded and their variations usually occur with the change in altitude, land use and geology of the study area.
2.2. Data Collection
2.2.1. Plant Surveys, Collection and Identification
For inventorying different plant species (higher plants), twenty-four field exploration surveys were carried out from 2018 to 2021 in different growing seasons in the Bhallesa region of the Pir Panjal mountain range. At the onset, the study area was divided into four sub-sites (Chilli, Kahal, Chanwariand Gandoh), and at each site, 25 replicated plots (each measuring 2500 m2, 50 × 50 m2) were established and further divided into plots of 10 × 10 m for convenience. In order to reduce the effects of spatial autocorrelation, the least distance between the plot ranges was maintained between 500 and 100 m, depending on the geography of the site chosen for surveying and studying. Altogether, 100 plots measuring 250,000 m2 (or 250 km2), randomly placed quadrats, were studied to document the entire floristic wealth of Bhallesa. The unapproachable sites and tough mountainous terrains were excluded from laying the quadrat study. The multiple surveys were carried out to account for plant species-specific variations with timing and the duration of fruiting [92] within each sampling plot between 2018 and 2021. Each selected plot was visited six times per year in February, April, June, July, September and November (totalling 24 field tours, covering 119 days).
We inventoried and collected the plant samples categorised as angiosperms, gymnosperms, lycophytes and ferns from four sub-sites located in the study area. The lower groups of plant species belonging to lichens, fungi, algae, bryophytes, etc., were excluded from this study. We focused on collecting the maximum number of species with flowers and fruits from the study area. All the samples collected were first dried and then pressed and processed according to the standard operating procedure of Jain and Rao [93]. Digital photographs, along with the GPS (Manufacturer: Garmin, Country: China) coordinates of all the specimens collected, were taken from the study area. All plant samples were collected in triplicate, and the herbarium sheets (42 × 28 cm) were prepared as per the standard protocols. Most species were identified on-site, and to confirm field identification and for those specimens whose identification was not possible on-site, specimens were taken to the laboratory and identified from the housed specimens at Janaki Ammal Herbarium (JAH) (acronym RRLH). The herbarium acronym is according to Janaki Ammal Herbarium [94]. The microscopic works were undertaken using a light microscope (Olympus Bx 53). The identity of the collected taxa was determined using published regional flora texts, such as Flora of Udhampur [95], Flora of Jammu and Plants of Neighbourhood [96], Flora of Trikuta Hills [97] and Illustration of Jammu Plants [98], consulting various monographs, recent research papers and books. Finally, the legitimate scientific names were verified using the World Checklist of Vascular Plants (
2.2.2. Presentation of Data
In order to investigate the community structure and vegetation composition, the plant specimens were collected from the study area and identified based on their morphological characteristics. During the field surveys, the observations on field characteristics of plants, such as growth form, habitat, ecology, habit, leaf size and lifeforms (Raunkiaer’s life form), were focused on and recorded. The distribution of the flowering period of the collected plant samples was included in the study. The extent of the growth form is determined by the direction of the growth of the plant’s main axis, categorised into trees, shrubs and herbs [99]. The life forms that were determined by the place of location of the penetrating bud during the favourable season (14) were sub-categorised as geophyte (GE), therophyte (TH), phanerophyte (PH), chamaephyte (CH), hemicryptophyte (HC), liana (L) and epiphyte (Ep). The phanerophyte group of plant communities were again sub-divided into megaphanerophytes (mgPH), mesophanerophytes (msPH), microphanerophytes (mcPH) and nanophanerophytes (nnPH). Investigating the size of the leaves with morphological observations provides a better understanding of studying the climate and the floristic gradients of a given ecosystem [100]. Therefore, the plant species of the study area were investigated based on leaf size and categorised as megaphyll (MG), leptophyll (LP), mesophyll (ME), nanophyll (NP) and microphyll (MI). The angiosperm families were classified and arranged under genera based on the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group IV classification [101]. Other plant groups, such as the gymnosperm, lycophyte and fern, were placed after the flowering plants. The threatened status of each taxon in the study area was cross-checked with the website of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (
2.3. Data Analysis
The total species richness of the study area was recorded as the cumulative number of plant species present in 100 plots of four sub-sites of the study area during four consecutive years of investigation. The density, frequency and basal cover of each species within each plot were measured according to Misra [102]. The mean species richness was estimated by averaging the number of plant species (higher plants) recorded in 100 plots. The frequency of individual plant species was defined as the number of plots on which the given species was recorded (maximum 100 for all plots or 25 for individual sub-sites). The relative values were summed up to obtain the importance value index (IVI). The plant species diversity was calculated using the Shannon–Wiener function (H′) as
where ni indicates the number of individuals of a given species; i and N are the total number of individuals [103].The Simpson index of diversity (D) was calculated following Magurran [104] as
The distributional behaviour of the species was calculated using Pielou’s evenness index [105] as
where S = the total number of species.The PAST 4.10 statistical analysis software was used to analyse the diversity results easily.
2.4. Literature Sources
The identification of the collected plant specimens was confirmed from earlier scientific studies published in floras, books, revisionary works, journals and monographs, available in the CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine (IIIM), CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI) and the University of Jammu libraries. All the plant species were botanically compared with the help of the texts Flora of Udhampur [95], Flora of Jammu and Plants of Neighbourhood [96], Flora of TrikutaHills [97], Illustration of Jammu Plants [98], and Flowers of the Himalayas [106]. APG IV was used for the classification of the flowering plants, and the species’ names were verified using the POWO (available at
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Floristic Composition and Diversity of Species and Families
In this study, we collected 328 plant taxa samples belonging to 228 genera that were distributed in 78 families under 35 orders (Table 1). Out of the collected samples, 83.23% of species were dicots, followed by monocots at 11.89%, lycophytes and ferns at 2.74% and gymnosperms at 2.13%. The dominant orders included Lamiales with 41 genera (11.01%), Asterales and Rosales with 23 genera (10.13% each), Poales with 19 genera (8.37%), Caryophyllales with 16 genera (7.04%), Ranunculales with 15 genera (6.60%) and Saxifragales with 7 genera (4.80%). All the flowering plants were arranged according to the APG IV system of classification [101], followed by gymnosperms, lycophytes and ferns.
The ten dominant families, with respect to the species richness recorded from the area, are Asteraceae (34), Lamiaceae (21), Rosaceae (21), Poaceae (20), Ranunculaceae (18), Polygonaceae (14), Apiaceae (10), Brassicaceae (10), Plantaginaceae (9) and Fabaceae (8). A total of 28 monotypic families with single species were found in the study area, where 3 families were recorded as having 5 species, 9 families with 4 species, 13 families with 3 species and 9 families with 2 species were collected from the study area. These research studies show a similar pattern of work carried out by Dar and Khuroo [80] in the Kashmir Himalayan region and found Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Poaceae, Rosaceae and Polygonaceae as the most important and dominant families. Similar studies conducted by Chawla et al. [81] reported Poaceae and Asteraceae as the dominant families in the Bhabha valley of the Western Himalayas. In another similar work carried out by Sharma et al. [107], in the Sangla valley of Northwestern Himalaya, Asteraceae, Rosaceae, Apiaceae and Ranunculaceae were reported as the dominant families. Other studies published by Bhat et al. [87], Agrawal [108], Shaheen et al. [109] and Haq et al. [110] also show and support this research finding carried out in the Bhallesa regions of the Himalayas.
As a general observation, the species richness varies depending on the site selected for a research study. The results show that the number of species varies from 173 (Kahal plots) to 197 (Gandoh plots). We found great variation in the basal area of tree species, which varies from 44.16 ± 14.29 m2 ha−1 (Gandoh plots) to 144.52 ± 29.60 m2 ha−1 (Chilli plots). The density of tree species also varies from 136 (Kahal plots) to 240 plants ha−1 (Chilli plots). The highest density of the shrub community was recorded at Chilli (1056 ha−1), whereas the lowest was found at 656 plants ha−1 in Gandoh. In the herb community, the density was found to be highest at Chanwari (206,000 plants ha−1), whereas the lowest density was recorded at the Gandoh site (146,400 plants ha−1) (Table 2). The results showed that the species richness (S) did not reveal any significant (p > 0.05) changes. The results of the diversity measures (H’: Shannon–Wiener index; D: Simpson index of diversity; J: Pielou’s evenness index) across plots are provided in Table 2. The highest H’ is recorded at 2.78 ± 0.41 for the trees and shrubs (H’ = 2.92 ± 0.77) at the Gandoh site, whereas Chilliwas recorded to have the highest H’: 4.77 for herbs. The highest Simpson index of diversity (D) was recorded for the trees (D = 0.91 ± 0.28) and shrubs (0.94 ± 0.33) at the Gandoh site. The Chilli site recorded the highest Simpson index for herbs (0.99). The highest Pielou’s evenness index (J) was recorded at the Chanwari site for trees (0.83 ± 0.04), followed by Gandoh (0.71 ± 0.11), Kahal (0.64 ± 0.04) and Chilli (0.54 ± 0.08). The details are provided in Table 2. The plant species having the highest importance value index (IVI) varies location-wise. Pinus wallichiana A.B.Jacks., Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don, Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss, Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Royle, Acer caesium Wall. ex Brandis, Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Cambess.) Hook., Rhododendron arboreum Sm. and Juglans regia L. were the plant species with the highest IVIs in the study area. The lowest IVIs were recorded for Corylus colurna L. (IVI=4.93), followed by Crataegus songarica K.Koch (5.18), Morus alba L. (5.60), Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.Rob. (5.69) and Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl. (5.82) (Table 3). The IVI varies for Pinus wallichiana(IVI = 58.72 to 107.42), Cedrus deodara (34.53 to 69.11), and Picea smithiana (21.98 to 36.04) in the study area. The soil depth, high moisture retention capacity and relatively high temperatures are all factors that contribute to the high diversity of ecosystems. In a recent study undertaken by Wen et al. [111], in the alpine meadows of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau in China, proven ecosystems in the high-altitude regions are more sensitive, ecologically fragile and respond more rapidly than any other ecosystems to global climate warming. The results showed that short-term warming increases the air temperature by 0.31 °C and decreases relative humidity by 2.54%, which leads to a decrease in the importance value of grasses by 47.56% and sedges by 3.67%. In this study, it is reported that the species diversity indices increased at the early stage of warming and decreased at the late stage of warming, but none of them reached significant levels (p > 0.05), and also, the species diversity had no significant correlation with the soil temperature and soil moisture under both short-term and long-term warming. Many earlier botanists and ecologists carried out similar research studies in the different pockets of the Western Himalayas at different periods. Some renowned works showing similar findings include Malik and Bhatt [112], Tiwari et al. [113] and Haq et al. [114].
3.2. Species Diversity in Different Growth Forms
Of the total number of the collected species, 256 (78.28%) of the species were herbs, followed by shrubs (44 sp., 13.45%), and 27 species (8.25%) of plants represent trees. Our study reveals that the trees and shrub community decrease with the increase in altitude, and the herb species follow a reverse trend because they increase as the altitude increases. Herbs show the most advanced and successful growth forms as they easily adapt to a wide range of habitats.
Out of the total collected specimens, 271 (82.87%) are dicots, 40 (12.32%) are monocots, 9 (2.75%) are lycophytes and ferns, and 7 (2.14%) are gymnosperms. In this study, 51 species (15.59%) represent an annual life span. The most common annuals collected from the study area were: Arabis alpina L., Digitalis purpurea L., Draba nuda (Bel.) Al-Shehbaz & M. Koch, Impatiens balfourii Hook.f., Mazus pumilus (Burm.f.) Steenis, Galinsoga parviflora Cav., etc. A total of 276 plant taxa were found to be perennial, comprising 84.40% of the total flora collected from the study area. The perennial plants were mostly shrubs and trees. The majority of trees and shrubs growing in the study area are evergreen coniferous species, such as Abies pindrow, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana and Piceasmithiana. Deciduous plants, such as the Acer caesium, Aesculus indica, Celtis australis L., Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex DC. and Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Decne.) Rehder, are also frequent in the study area. Data on the life-span findings from the study area was found similar to that of Subramani et al. [115], in which the research on life-span studies was carried out in the Northwestern Himalayas. Torresani et al. [22] estimated tree species diversity from space in an alpine conifer forest and attempted to test the spectral variation hypothesis (SVH). The results of this study showed that the spectral variation in species is season and sensor-dependent, and the coefficient of variations depends on the temporal tendency of the species. Other research findings by Saha [116] on the dominant lifeforms in the Darjeeling regions of the Northeastern Himalayas show a similar pattern to our findings. Rawat and Adhikari [117] studied the Changthang plateau of the Ladakh region for altitudinal gradients showing similar patterns to these findings, and the results correlate with the already existing research study. Other similar research includes Namgail et al. [118] and Pharswan and Mehta [119] in the Western Himalayas. Nautiyal et al. [120] conducted studies in the Tungnath area of the Kumaon Himalaya that show a similar pattern to the research findings in our study of the Bhallesa region. In these research findings, the angiosperms species, their diversity and growth forms in the Bhallesa Hills were the most dominant in the lower altitudes, whereas the members of the gymnosperm show their presence in the higher regions of the study area. Earlier research findings, such as Mir et al. [121] in the Kashmir Himalayas and Dogra et al. [122], studied plant diversity in the Western Himalayas in Himachal Pradesh with similar types of elevation and climate, and these studies also support our research findings from Bhallesaof Pir Panjal Mountain.
Another study by Gaston et al. [123], carried out in the Western Himalayas, also shows a similar pattern to our research and also proves that the destruction of habitat and hunting threatens temperate forest resources. Another research study by Gairola et al. [124] shows floristic analyses in the Western Himalayas of the Gharwal division of Uttarakhand and reported similar outcomes to our research findings.
3.3. Life Forms and Biological Spectrum
The biological spectra of Bhallesa Hills show chamaephytes as the most dominant group, representing a total of 27.74% (91 taxa), followed by therophytes having 82 taxa (25%), 65 phanerophytes (19.82%), 46 hemicryptophytes (14.02%) and 37 geophytes (11.28%) (Figure 2). Lianas (6 taxa, 1.83%) and epiphytes (1 taxon, 0.3%) represent the lowest life forms of coniferous forests of the Bhallesa region. Among the phanerophytes, the nanophanerophytes (nnPH), represented by 19 taxa (29.23%), were more dominant than the megaphanerophytes (mgPH) comprising 18 taxa (27.69%), microphanerophytes (mcPH) comprising 17 taxa (26.15%) and mesophanerophytes (msPH) with 11 taxa (16.92%) (Figure 3, Table 4). The chamaephytes, followed by the therophytes growing in the Bhallesa regions, show a maximal divergence from Raunkiaer’s normal spectra. An increase in the number of phanerophytes and therophytes shows that the community has a warmer climate [125,126], whereas the chameophytes and hemicryptophytes were confined to the cold regions. The biotic and abiotic disturbances in a particular area tend to increase the number of therophytes in the area. A study carried out by Deljouei et al. [127] in the temperate hornbeam-beech forests of Northern Iran recorded hemicryptophytes (54.8%) as the dominant biological spectrum group, followed by the cryptophytes (25.8%), therophytes (11.3%), phanerophytes (4.8%), and chamaephytes (3.3%). Furthermore, the diversity index of different species decreases when the distance of disturbance increases; this decreasing trend continued up to 60m from the forest road margin, and after this threshold, the index slightly increased.
Similar studies by Cain [128], Daubenmire [129], Vashistha et al. [130], and Saxena et al. [131] also reported a decrease in woody flora in the higher altitudes with an increase in the percentage of cryptophytes and hemicryptophytes. In our study, the correlation between altitude and lifeforms was carried out, and we found that the phanerophytes decrease with increasing altitude. Thus, the low temperature at high altitudes is a controlling factor for the growth of phanerophytes and therophytes. Our study revealed that the chamaephytes with geophytes and hemicryptophytes were found at higher altitudes, and the phanerophytes and therophytes were confined to the lower heights in the study area. Similar research studies were conducted by Saxena et al. [131] on the lifeforms at high altitudes in the Kumaon Himalayan regions; Singh and Bedi [132] studied similar research in different regions of the Western Himalayas, supporting our research findings. Regarding the research study by Das et al. [133] in different pockets of the Western Himalayas, we found similar results by comparing our research findings. During the field study, we found the population of many plant taxa was decreasing and were at risk of extinction; therefore, we feel that interactions and support with the local people and the forest department of the area should take proper management steps to protect the declining plant species and the vegetation composition of the Bhallesa region.
Workers such as Dobhal et al. [134] conducted comparable experiments in the Western Himalayas and found similar types of biological spectra in similar environmental conditions. According to their findings, therophytes were dominant, which is similar to our observations. Ghildiyal and Meenakshi [135] carried out similar studies in a similar region of the Western Himalayas and showed phanerophytes as dominant life forms along with therophytes. Ghildiyal et al. [136] had undertaken a similar study in the identical topographical zone in Garhwal Himalaya and presented ‘thero-phanerophytic’ rich life forms, which again support our studies. Furthermore, many other researchers, such as Thakur et al. [137], have undertaken similar studies in the Himachal of the Western Himalayas. According to their observations, therophytes were dominant in the region, which has very similar types of climatic conditions. Kapoor and Singh [138] have undertaken similar studies in the Shimla hills of the Western Himalayas and have very much achieved the same findings, which validate our results. Particularly in Jammu and Kashmir, many botanists have carried out studies on the biological spectrum in different regions of UT. Sharma and Raina [139] have undertaken similar studies in the Jammu region of the Western Himalayas. According to their observations, therophytes were dominant, similar to our research in the Himalayan ecosystem/habitat of Jammu and Kashmir, the Western Himalayas. Raina and Kumar [140] carried out studies on biological spectra in the Kishtwar district of Jammu and Kashmir, and our study also shows certain similarities with respect to species composition and family abundance. Again, according to their work, therophytes were the dominant lifeforms that experienced similar topographic conditions of Bani Valley and Sarthal Hill. In district Kathua, Singh et al. [84] carried out similar studies and indicated a thero-phanerophytic type, which again validates our research findings obtained from Bhallesa mountain.
3.4. Leaf Size Spectrum
Leaf size spectra of the study area show 27 leptophyllous (8.23%), 139 nanophyllous (42.38%), 72 microphyllous (21.95%), 80 mesophyllous (24.39%) and 10 megaphyllous (3.05%) (Table 5). Nanophyllous were found to be the highest among the collected specimens, followed by mesophyllous, microphyllous, leptophyllous and megaphyllous. In this study, we have seen that the large-leaved species are found to occur in moist and warm climates, and smaller leaves are found in dry and cold climates. The data provided by Wright et al. [31] for the study of leaves for 7670 plant taxa, along with the climate data from 682 different sites of the world, also suggests that plants with large leaves occur in a wet and hot climate, whereas plants with small leaves occur in high-altitude areas [141]. Haq et al. [110] and his group also suggested that plants with microphyllous and nanophyllous leaves were mostly confined to the higher altitude reaches of the Himalayas. The study on the floristic composition and biological spectrum, conducted in the Keran valley of Kashmir Himalaya, recorded 183 species, where the herbaceous growth form was dominant (67% species) and mesophylls (34%) followed by nanophylls (29%) and microphylls (27%) were major leaf size categories, and therefore, these results confirm the similar findings which we observed in the Bhallesa Hills [120]. This study also confirms that the herbaceous taxa are dominant in the upper regions of the mountains. Shaheen et al. [109] also studied similar patterns of life forms in the Western Himalayas.
3.5. Phenological Periods
The flowering periods of the plant specimens collected from the study area were categorised into four different groups. From January to March, a total number of 20 species were recorded in the flowering stage (6.10%), followed by 118 taxa observed flowering in April to June (35.98%), 171 taxa in July to September (52.13%), and only 19 taxa were seen flowering from October to December (5.79%) (Figure 4). It has been observed that the species growing in the Bhallesa mountain area prefer flowering between July and September, as most of the study regions fall under the temperate zone, which experiences extreme snowfall in the winter season. The plants growing in the region flourish by making their penetrating buds dormant to overcome harsh conditions. Due to this, the plants growing in various habitats mostly bloom in the summer and spring seasons. From July to September, the study area received the maximum of its rainfall; therefore, the high rain allowed the plants to bloom and grow. Several studies, which were undertaken in the past on phenology and the discovery of new plants in the last fifty years, supported the quantitative and phonological studies, better providing a clear picture of the vegetation composition of the area [142]. Kala [143] studied the phenology of sub-aline and alpine plants in the Valley of Flowers National Park and Hemkund, situated in Uttarakhand (Western Himalaya), and recorded April as the month of a favourable growing season, and seed dehiscence was completed from September to October. Another study, undertaken by Pangtey et al. [144], recorded the various developmental stages of 148 species of high-altitude regions of the Pindari glacial moraine area of Kumaun of Central Himalaya (India), concluding that most of the plants on high hills and valleys complete their growth cycles within a short period of favourable conditions to ensure the survival of their progeny—the June to October months are the peak phenophase period. Furthermore, this finding of our study shows similar patterns to the existing studies carried out in mountainous regions by several various other researchers across the globe [145].
3.6. Alien Taxa
Out of the total 328 taxa inventoried from the Bhallesa region, 31.49% (103 taxa) are alien species, while 68.50% (224 taxa) are native to the Asian or Himalayan regions (Table 6). Mostly, the alien plant taxa found growing in the season show affinities with European and American origins. The most common alien species found in the area are: Achillea millefolium L., Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop., Cerastium glomeratum Thuill., Carum carvi L., Arisaema jacquemontii Blume, Campanula pallida Wall., Galinsoga parviflora Cav., Jasminum grandiflorum L., Amaranthus caudatus L. and Oenothera biennis L. Alien species are the potential invaders of the Himalayas. Some earlier studies by Maheshwari [146], who studied naturalised flora, have shown that Indian flora constitutes nearly 18% of the alien flora. A few more studies have also shown the alien taxa of the different regions of India without any perspective on plant invasion in their mind, and important studies include Sharma and Pandey [147], Pandey and Parmar [148] and Nagar et al. [149]. A study conducted by Shrestha [150] on invasive alien plant species in Nepal reported that both the population and number of alien plant species are continuously increasing, and climate changes are likely to intensify the biological invasions in time to come by increasing climatically suitable areas. Alien taxa have more phenotypic plasticity than native plant species, and due to their various superior characteristics, they can easily colonise the wastelands and natural habitats compared to the native species [151,152,153,154]. The families with most of the alien species in India include taxa belonging to Asteraceae, Poaceae, Brassicaceae, Fabaceae and Lamiaceae [155], and these families are found consistent with similar findings undertaken in India [156], Australia [157] and New Zealand [158]. A total of 31.25% of alien species were recorded from the study area, and the values are comparable with the studies reported by Kohli et al. [159] from the Northwestern Himalayan region of Himachal Pradesh, India. Various studies have also reported Ageratum conyzoides L., Lantana camara L. and Parthenium hysterophorus L. as the most dangerous invasive species regarding the Indian climate, and these species would exert a significant impact on the native communities, resulting in drastic displacement and imbalance in the natural and agriculture ecosystems [159].
3.7. Red List IUCN and Conservation Status
Out of the collected 328 plant taxa, 245of these, from the Bhallesa regions, were found to be not categorised in any category (NE) by IUCN (
4. Conclusions
Scientifically proven, the biological spectrum accurately describes the vegetation physiognomy, and the floristic analysis indicates the natural ecological wealth of the ecosystem. Traditional, sample-based research appeared to be the best to demonstrate the diversity of the plant communities from different ecological groups in Himalayan mixed-coniferous forests. The high-altitude plant species of the Bhallesa regions responded differently to the environmental drivers, with chamaephytes and therophytes being tightly linked to the temperate and alpine ecosystems. Documentation of the floristic compositions with the associated environmental parameters provides a better understanding of the vegetational structure and conservation status of the Himalayan ecosystem, on the one hand, by contributing to the feasible management of unique natural resources. The Pir Panjal range of the Himalayas has a rich plant diversity and natural resources, as evidenced by the occurrence of 328 species of higher plants in a small forest zone. This research will serve as a baseline of informative data for studies pertaining to the field of ecology and the environment. This study would be useful in the comparison and differentiation of vegetation composition in the Himalayas and their ecosystems. In our present study, phanerophytes, therophytes and hemicryptophytes share importance in depicting the phenero-, thero-, and hemicryptophytic phytoclimates. This provides an important database for policymakers to make proper management plans for the conservation and feasible use of plant resources. Our study also suggested the important role of biotic factors in shaping the vegetation structure of the landscape, and thus, anthropogenic stress is required to be minimised for the conservation of natural flora. In the upcoming future, different conservation programmes will be required to protect economically valuable flora by providing proper education and knowledge among the people.
Conceptualization, B.S. and O.S.; Data curation, O.S., B.S. and C.M.M.; Formal analysis, O.S., B.S. and C.M.M.; Investigation, O.S. and B.S.; Methodology, O.S. and B.S.; Supervision, B.S.; Validation, O.S., B.S. and C.M.M.; Visualization, B.S. and C.M.M.; Writing—original draft, O.S. and B.S.; Writing—review and editing, B.S. and C.M.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Not applicable.
We are highly grateful to Director CSIR-IIIM, Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir, and Director CSIR-NBRI, Lucknow, U.P., for providing the herbarium facilities and encouragement to carry out this work. The authors also acknowledge the local people of the study area and the Jammu and Kashmir Forest Department for their support with the surveys and field collections.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Enlarge this image.Figure 2. Biological spectra of the taxa recorded in the Bhallesa region (Jammu and Kashmir), Western Himalayas, India, based on Raunkiaer’s system of classification.
Enlarge this image.Figure 3. Comparison of the biological spectra of the taxa recorded in the Bhallesa region (Jammu and Kashmir), Western Himalayas, India, with Raunkiaer’s normal spectra (PH: phanerophytes; mcPH: microphanerophytes; mgPH: megaphanerophytes; msPH: mesophanerophytes; nnPH: nanophanerophytes; CH: chamaephytes; GE: geophytes; HC: hemicryptophytes; TH: therophytes; L: lianas, Ep: epiphytes; 0* was taken into consideration for deviation analysis).
Enlarge this image.Figure 4. Phenology of the studied plant taxa in Bhallesa region, Pir Panjal Range, Himalayas.
Floristic composition of Bhallesa Hills, Pir PanjalMountain Range, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
| Groups | Categories (APG IV) | Selected Plots in Bhallesa Study Area | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Gandoh | Kahal | Chaunwari | Chilly | ||||||||||
| GPS Coordinates | 33°01′56″N, 75°54′47″E | 33°01′30″N,76° 01′50″E | 32°04′ 52″N, 75 47′42″E | 33°02′60″N, 76°02′42″E | |||||||||
| Elevation (m.a.s.l.) | 1625 to 2989 | 2132 to 3799 | 1760 to 2887 | 2225 to 4000 | |||||||||
| Sub-Categories | Fam. | Gen. | Sp. | Fam. | Gen. | Sp. | Fam. | Gen. | Sp. | Fam. | Gen. | Sp. | |
| A. Angiosperms * | I. Magnoliids | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
| II. Monocots | 7 | 16 | 18 | 7 | 18 | 21 | 6 | 19 | 24 | 10 | 23 | 27 | |
| II. Eudicots | 4 | 13 | 14 | 3 | 12 | 15 | 3 | 12 | 15 | 3 | 13 | 18 | |
| III. Superrosids | 2 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 6 | 9 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 6 | 10 | |
| IV. Rosids | 21 | 48 | 57 | 15 | 33 | 36 | 19 | 43 | 52 | 16 | 33 | 39 | |
| V. Superasterids | 4 | 13 | 16 | 3 | 8 | 13 | 4 | 10 | 16 | 3 | 13 | 14 | |
| VI. Asterids | 20 | 46 | 56 | 19 | 50 | 66 | 20 | 48 | 63 | 17 | 59 | 76 | |
| Sub-Total | 59 | 137 | 164 | 50 | 127 | 160 | 55 | 135 | 173 | 52 | 147 | 184 | |
| B. Gymnosperms | 2 | 4 | 5 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 4 | 4 | 3 | 6 | 7 | |
| C. Lycophytes and Ferns | 4 | 5 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 4 | 5 | 7 | 4 | 4 | 4 | |
| ** Total | 65 | 146 | 175 | 57 | 138 | 172 | 61 | 144 | 184 | 59 | 157 | 195 | |
* For angiosperms only; ** total 328 species, 228 genera, 78 families and 35 orders; total 256 herbs, 43 shrubs, 29 trees; m.a.s.l. (meter above sea level); total 273 dicotyledons; total 39 monocotyledons; total 7 gymnosperms; total 9 lycophytes and ferns.
Plant species richness, basal area, density and diversity indices for Bhallesa forested regions (Chilli, Kahal, Chanwari, Gandoh) of Pir Panjal Range, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
| Categories | Tree Community | Shrub Community | Herb Community | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cl | Ka | Ch | Gd | Cl | Ka | Ch | Gd | Cl | Ka | Ch | Gd | |
| Plant species richness | 13 | 13 | 15 | 23 | 25 | 19 | 20 | 22 | 157 | 139 | 150 | 130 |
| Number of families | 9 | 9 | 10 | 15 | 18 | 16 | 16 | 17 | 45 | 43 | 43 | 41 |
| Basal area (m2 ha−1) | 144.52 ± 29.60 | 85.08 |
119.24 ± 15.18 | 44.16 ± 14.29 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
| Density (ha−1) | 240 | 136 | 216 | 192 | 1056 | 816 | 672 | 656 | 191,200 | 196,800 | 206,000 | 146,400 |
| H’ | 1.95 ± 0.50 | 2.12 ± 0.47 | 2.52 ± 0.32 | 2.78 ± 0.41 | 2.81 ± 0.36 | 2.73 ± 0.87 | 2.71 ± 0.67 | 2.92 ± 0.77 | 4.77 | 4.68 | 4.67 | 4.59 |
| D | 0.77 ± 0.27 | 0.82 ± 0.13 | 0.89 ± 0.32 | 0.91 ± 0.28 | 0.91 ± 0.37 | 0.92 ± 0.45 | 0.91 ± 0.38 | 0.94 ± 0.33 | 0.99 | 0.98 | 0.98 | 0.98 |
| J | 0.54 ± 0.08 | 0.64 ± 0.04 | 0.83 ± 0.04 | 0.71 ± 0.11 | 0.66 ± 0.06 | 0.81 ± 0.13 | 0.79 ± 0.09 | 0.84 ± 0.12 | 0.75 | 0.78 | 0.72 | 0.76 |
Cl: Chilli, Ka: Kahal, Ch: Chanwari, Gd: Gandoh; H’: Shannon–Wiener index, D: Simpson index of diversity, J: Pielou’s evenness index.
Proportion (%) of basal area, density and IVI for various tree species ofBhallesa forested regions (Chilli, Kahal, Chanwari, Gandoh) of Pir Panjal Range, Jammu and Kashmir, India.
| Taxa | Basal Area (m2 ha−1) | Density (ha−1) | IVI | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Cl | Ka | Ch | Gd | Cl | Ka | Ch | Gd | Cl | Ka | Ch | Gd | |
| Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Royle | 7.68 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 24 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 25.84 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Acer caesium Wall. ex Br. | 0.00 | 1.84 | 4.60 | 1.84 | 0 | 8 | 20 | 8 | 0.00 | 16.76 | 22.46 | 11.07 |
| Aesculus indica (Wall. ex Camb.) Hook.f. | 3.84 | 1.92 | 5.76 | 1.68 | 8 | 4 | 12 | 4 | 11.25 | 9.55 | 17.28 | 6.15 |
| Alnus nepalensis D.Don | 5.88 | 1.96 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 12 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 14.33 | 9.59 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl. | 0.00 | 0.00 | 3.92 | 1.28 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 4 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 10.44 | 5.82 |
| Betula utilis D.Don | 2.16 | 2.16 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 4 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 5.79 | 9.83 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Cedrusdeodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don | 39.16 | 24.92 | 17.80 | 42.00 | 44 | 28 | 20 | 28 | 69.11 | 62.92 | 34.53 | 56.77 |
| Celtis australis L. | 0.00 | 3.00 | 6.00 | 3.44 | 0 | 4 | 8 | 4 | 0.00 | 10.82 | 12.18 | 7.58 |
| Corylus colurna L. | 0.92 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.98 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 4.93 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 11.13 |
| Crataegus songarica K.Koch | 1.28 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 5.18 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Ficus hispida L. | 0.00 | 1.36 | 4.08 | 1.32 | 0 | 4 | 12 | 4 | 0.00 | 8.89 | 12.43 | 5.86 |
| Ficus palmata Forssk. | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.44 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 5.95 |
| Fraxinus excelsior L. | 0.00 | 1.28 | 1.28 | 1.56 | 0 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 0.00 | 8.79 | 6.37 | 6.05 |
| Juglans regia L. | 5.92 | 2.96 | 8.88 | 3.48 | 8 | 4 | 12 | 4 | 12.69 | 10.77 | 16.45 | 7.61 |
| Juniperus communis L. | 3.84 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 2.88 | 12 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 12.92 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 11.91 |
| Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.Rob. | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.12 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 5.69 |
| Morus alba L. | 0.00 | 0.00 | 2.80 | 1.00 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 4 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 9.50 | 5.60 |
| Picea smithiana (Wall.) Boiss | 11.76 | 11.76 | 19.60 | 12.72 | 12 | 12 | 20 | 12 | 18.40 | 31.34 | 36.04 | 21.98 |
| Pinus wallichiana A.B.Jacks | 57.00 | 27.36 | 29.64 | 18.24 | 100 | 48 | 52 | 48 | 107.42 | 97.89 | 73.07 | 58.72 |
| Platanus orientalis L. | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.84 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 6.28 |
| Populus ciliata Wall. ex Royle | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 3.04 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 12.04 |
| Quercus floribunda Lindl. ex A.Camus | 0.00 | 0.00 | 5.04 | 1.96 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 4 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.68 | 6.38 |
| Quercus ilex L. | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.44 | 4.64 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 8 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 6.51 | 10.63 |
| Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. | 0.00 | 2.88 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0 | 8 | 0 | 0 | 0.00 | 13.62 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Rhododendron arboreum Sm. | 1.68 | 1.68 | 5.04 | 3.56 | 4 | 4 | 12 | 4 | 5.48 | 9.26 | 13.23 | 7.67 |
| Robinia pseudoacacia L. | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 2.28 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 4 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 6.64 |
| Taxus wallichiana Zucc. | 3.40 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 4 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 6.65 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
| Trema orientale (L.) Blume | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 6.96 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 8 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 15.22 |
| Ulmus wallichiana Planch. | 0.00 | 0.00 | 3.36 | 3.04 | 0 | 0 | 12 | 4 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 11.82 | 7.25 |
Cl: Chilli, Ka: Kahal, Ch: Chanwari, Gd: Gandoh; IVI: importance value index; m2: square meter; ha−1: per hectare.
Biological spectra (% of all lifeforms) of Bhallesa Hill (Jammu and Kashmir), Pir Panjal Mountain, India and its comparison with Raunkiaer’s normal spectra.
| Raunkiaer’s Life Forms | Number of Plant Taxa | Biological Spectra (%) of Study Area | Raunkiaer’s Normal Worldwide Spectra (%) | Deviation = Raunkiaer’s Normal |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PH * | 65 * | 19.82 | 46.00 | 26.18 | |
| mcPH | 17 | 5.18 | 0.00 ** | –5.18 | |
| mgPH | 18 | 5.49 | 3.00 | –2.49 | |
| msPH | 11 | 3.35 | 28.00 | 24.65 | |
| nnPH | 19 | 5.79 | 15.00 | 9.21 | |
| CH | 91 | 27.74 | 9.00 | –18.74 | |
| GE | 37 | 11.28 | 6.00 | –5.28 | |
| HC | 46 | 14.02 | 26.00 | 11.98 | |
| TH | 82 | 25.00 | 13.00 | –12.00 | |
| L | 6 | 1.83 | 0.00 ** | –1.83 | |
| Ep | 1 | 0.30 | 0.00 ** | −0.30 | |
| Total | 328 | 100.00 | 100.00 | - | |
Raunkiaer’s lifeforms: GE—geophyte (perennial herbaceous species with complete periodic reduction of shoot system to storage organs); TH—therophyte (annuals whose root and shoot system dies after seed production within a year); PH *—phanerophyte (woody plants that grow >50 cm, whose shoots do not die back periodically to that height); CH—chamaephyte (woody perennial plants that grow <50 cm above the ground surface, whose shoots die back periodically to that height and above); HC—hemicryptophyte (perennial herbaceous species with periodic remnant reduction of shoot system that lies on the ground); L—liana (plants that grow by supporting themselves with other plants and are rooted in the ground); Ep—epiphyte (plants that grow by supporting themselves with other plants, bears roots on other plants and germinates). Raunkiaer′s sub-type phanerophyte life forms: mgPH—megaphanerophyte (>30 m tall); msPH—mesophanerophyte (8–30 m); mcPH—microphanerophyte (2–8 m); nnPH—nanophanerophyte (0.5–2 m). ** Value zero (0) was taken into consideration for deviation data.
Leaf spectra (% of all life forms) of Bhallesa regions (Jammu and Kashmir), Pir Panjal Mountain, Himalayas, India.
| Raunkiaer’s Life Forms | Number of Plant Taxa | Percentage (%) |
|---|---|---|
| LP | 27 | 8.23 |
| MS | 80 | 24.39 |
| MI | 72 | 21.95 |
| MG | 10 | 3.05 |
| NP | 139 | 42.38 |
| Total | 328 | 100.00 |
MG: megaphyll, LP: leptophyll, MS: mesophyll, NP: nanophyll (NP), MI: microphyll.
Plant composition of Bhallesa region of District Doda, Jammu and Kashmir, Pir Panjal Himalayan Mountain of India.
| Plant Groups as APG IV (Voucher Number) | Habit | Life Span | Phenology Period | Habitat | Raunkiaer′s |
Raunkiaer′sSub-Types | LeafSpectra | Conservation Status (IUCN) | Specific Distribution | Native (N)/Alien (A) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Magnoliids | ||||||||||
| Laurales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Lauraceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.Rob. (54,761) | T | P | Sep–Oct | Sparse forests and thickets | PH | msPH | MI | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Monocots | ||||||||||
| Acorales Mart. | ||||||||||
| Acoraceae Mart. | ||||||||||
| Acorus calamus L. (56,255) | H | P | Jul–Sep | River Banks | GE | NP | LC | North America | A | |
| Alismatales R.Br. ex Bercht & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Araceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Arisaema flavum (Forssk.) Schott. (56,347) | H | P | Jun–Jul | Field margins | GE | MS | NE | Asia | N | |
| Arisaema jacquemontii Blume (57,631) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Open forests | GE | MS | LC | North America, Eurasia | A | |
| Dioscoreales Mart | ||||||||||
| DioscoreaceaeR.Br | ||||||||||
| Dioscorea bulbifera L. (57,667) | S | A | Jul–Sep | Mixed |
L | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Liliales Perleb | ||||||||||
| Liliaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Fritillaria cirrhosa D.Don (56,291) | P | H | Aug–Oct | Alpine thickets and scrubs | HC | LP | NE | Asia | N | |
| Asparagales Link | ||||||||||
| Orchidaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Calanthe tricarinata Lindl. (57,667) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Grassy slopes | GE | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soo (56,210) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Alpine scrubs and thickets | GE | NP | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Epipactis helleborine (L.) Crantz (57,602) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Moist shady places | GE | MI | LC | Asia and Africa | A | |
| Iridaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Iris hookeriana Foster (55,708) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Grassy slopes | GE | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Iris kashmiriana Baker (55,721) | H | P | Jun–Jul | Grassy areas, graveyards | GE | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Amaryllidaceae J.St.Hil | ||||||||||
| Allium humile Kunth (56,229) | H | P | Jun–Jul | Alpine thickets and rocky crevices | GE | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Allium stracheyi Baker (56,228) | H | P | Jun–Jul | Alpine thickets and rocky crevices | GE | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Asparagaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Asparagus filicinus Buch.–Ham. ex D.Don (54,548) | H | S | May–Jul | Moist shady places | PH | nnPH | MI | DD | Himalayas | N |
| Maianthemum purpureum (Wall.) La Frankie (56,231) | H | P | Jun–Jul | Forest Thickets and slopes | CH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle (56,230) | H | P | Jun–Aug | Forest Thickets and margins | GE | LP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Polygonatum verticillatum (L.) All. (56,224) | H | P | Jun–Aug | Forest Thickets and margins | GE | LP | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Poales Small | ||||||||||
| Cyperaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Carex nivalis Boott (55,767) | P | H | May–Jun | Hill slopes | HC | MI | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Cyperus niveus Retz. (56,348) | H | A | Sep–Oct | Stream sides | TH | MI | NE | Asia | N | |
| Cyperus rotundus L. (56,408) | H | A | May–Jun | Grasslands | TH | MI | LC | Africa and Europe | A | |
| Poaceae Barnhart | ||||||||||
| Alopecurus arundinaceus Poir. (56,319) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Grasslands and slopes | HC | NP | LC | Eurasia | A | |
| Arthraxon lanceolatus (Roxb.) Hochst. (56,336) | H | A | Jul–Sep | Rocky surfaces | TH | NP | LC | Eurasia | A | |
| Bothriochloa ischaemum (L.) Keng (56,337) | H | A | May–Jun | Grasslands | TH | MI | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Capillipedium parviflorum (R.Br.) Stapf (57,651) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Mountain slopes | TH | NP | NE | Europe | A | |
| Cenchrus flaccidus (Griseb.) Morrone (56,421) | H | A | May–Jun | Waste areas | HC | MS | LC | South Africa | A | |
| Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.) Chiov. (56,317) | H | A | Jun–Jul | Moist shady places | TH | MS | NE | Asia | N | |
| Chrysopogon gryllus (L.) Trin. (56,339) | H | P | Aug–Sep | Moist shady places | HC | MS | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. (56,260) | H | P | Sep–Dec | Road sides open areas | HC | NP | NE | Africa | A | |
| Echinochloa crus–galli (L.) P.Beauv (56,403) | H | P | May–Jun | Forest margins and road sides | HC | NP | LC | South Africa | A | |
| Elymus semicostatus (Steud.) Melderis (56,432) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Mountain slopes | HC | NP | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Isachne himalaica Hook.f. (65,322) | H | P | May–Jun | Moist, swampy areas | HC | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Melinis minutiflora P.Beauv. (56,323) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Field margins and |
HC | MS | NE | Africa | A | |
| Miscanthus nepalensis (Trin.) Hack. (56,326) | H | P | Aug–Sep | Mountain slopes and valleys | HC | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Panicum virgatum L. (56,329) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Field sides | TH | NP | LC | NorthAmerica | A | |
| Poa annua L. (56,304) | H | A | Apr–Jun | Moist shady places | TH | MS | LC | SouthAmerica | A | |
| Polypogon fugax Nees ex. Steud. (56,328) | H | A | Jul–Aug | Moist shady places in forests | TH | NP | NE | SouthAmerica | A | |
| Saccharum fillifolium Steud. (56,309) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Grasslands | TH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Saccharum spontaneum L. (56,318) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Hill slopes | HC | NP | LC | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Setaria italica (L.) P.Beauv. (56,330) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Slopes and Waste lands | TH | MS | NE | Africa | A | |
| Setaria viridis (L.) P.Beauv. (56,331) | H | P | May–Jun | Roadsides and field margins | TH | LP | NE | Asia | N | |
| II. Eudicots | ||||||||||
| Ranunculales Juss. ex Bercht. & J. Presl | ||||||||||
| Papaveraceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Corydalis diphylla Wall. |
H | P | Apr–Jun | Steam sides, shady places | GE | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Corydalis vaginans Royle (57,665) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Stream sides, rock crevices | GE | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Corydalis govaniana Wall. |
H | P | Apr–Jun | Forest understories, moist places | GE | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Fumaria indica (Hausskn.) Pugsley (56,374) | H | P | Mar–Jun | Field margins and thickets | TH | LP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Papaver guilelmi–waldemarii (Klotzsch) Christenh. & Byng |
H | P | Jul–Sep | Rocky crevices | CH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Berberidaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Berberis aristata DC. (56,315) | S | P | Apr–Jun | Open waste lands | PH | mcPH | NP | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Berberis jaeschkeana C.K.Schneid (57,637) | S | P | Apr–Jun | Forest Thickets, Wastelands | PH | mcPH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Berberis lycium Royle (54,312) | S | P | Apr–Jun | Forest margins, open waste lands | PH | mcPH | NP | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Podophyllum hexandrum Royle (56,285) | H | P | Jun–Jul | Alpine region open areas | HC | MI | NE | Asia | N | |
| Ranunculaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle (55,769) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Alpine thickets and scrubs | CH | NP | EN | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Aconitum lethale Griff (55,751) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Alpine thickets and scrubs | CH | NP | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Actaea spicata L. (56,297) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Moist shady places in forests | CH | MS | LC | Europe | A | |
| Anemonastrum obtusilobum (D.Don) Mosyakin |
H | P | Apr–June | Forest margins and alpine meadows | CH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Anemonastrum polyanthes (D.Don) Holub (55,732) | H | P | Jun–Jul | Steep slopes near glaciers | CH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Anemonstarum tetrasepalum (Royle) Holub (54,513) | H | P | Jun–Jul | Steep slopes, alpine scrubs | CH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Aquilegia pubiflora Wall. ex Royle (54,766) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Forests, shady places | HC | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Caltha alba Cambess (55,771) | H | P | Jul–Sep. | Stream sides | CH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Caltha palustris L. (54,528) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Stream sides | CH | MS | LC | Himalayas | N | |
| Clematis barbellata Edgew. (57,626) | S | P | Apr–Jun | Forests, Grassy slopes | L | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Delphinium denudatum Wall. ex Hook.f. & Thomson (54,789) | H | P | May–Jun | Hill slides, forest margins | TH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Delphinum cashmerianum Royle (54,508) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Alpine scrubs and thickets | TH | MS | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Hepatica falconeri (Thomson) Steward (54,362) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Shady places in forests | CH | MS | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Ranunculus distans D.Don (54,380) | H | P | Jul–Oct | Stream sides, slopedareas | GE | NP | NE | Asia | N | |
| Ranunculus bulbosus L. |
H | P | Apr–Jun | Disturbed woods, waste lands | GE | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Ranunculus hirtellus Royle (56,218) | H | P | Apr–Jul | Forest margins and alpine meado3ews | CH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Thalictrum foliolosum DC. (56,217) | S | P | Jun–Aug | Alpine thickets and scrubs | CH | MI | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Thalictrum virgatum Hook.f. & Thomson (56,314) | S | P | Jun–Aug | Forrest margins | CH | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Proteales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Platanaceae T.Lestib | ||||||||||
| Platanus orientalis L. (57,677) | T | P | Apr–May | Open areas village sides | PH | mgPH | MS | VU | Europe | A |
| III. CORE EUDICOTS | ||||||||||
| SUPER–ROSIDS | ||||||||||
| Saxifragales Bercht. & J. Presl | ||||||||||
| Hamamelidaceae R.Br. | ||||||||||
| Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Decne.) Rehder (7632) | S | P | Apr–Jun | Dense forests | PH | msPH | NP | LC | Central America | A |
| Saxifragaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.(54,359) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Rocky crevices | CH | NP | LC | SouthAmerica | A | |
| Saxifraga cernua L. (54,542) | H | P | Aug–Sep | Stream sides in alpine regions | CH | MI | NE | North America | A | |
| Saxifraga parnassifolia D.Don (55,724) | H | P | Aug–Sep | Stream sides in alpine regions | CH | NP | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Saxifraga sibirica L. (55,472) | H | P | Aug–Sep | Stream sides in alpine regions | CH | NP | LC | Himalayas | N | |
| Crassulaceae J.St.–Hil. | ||||||||||
| Hylotelephiu mewersii (Ledeb.) H.Ohba (55,740) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Forests, rock crevices | CH | NP | NE | Afghanistan to Siberia | A | |
| Rhodiola bupleuroides (Wall.ex Hook.f. & Thomson) S.H.Fu. (55,797) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Forest Thickets, Rocky slopes | CH | LP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Rhodiola himalensis (D.Don) S.H.Fu (56,204) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Rocky crevicesin alpine areas | CH | LP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Rhodiola wallichiana (Hook.) S.H.Fu (55,797) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Forest thickets and Rocky scrubs | CH | LP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Rosularia adenotricha (Wall. ex Edgew) C.–A.Jansson (57,666) | H | P | May–Jun | Rocky crevices | TH | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Sedum orades (Decne.) Raym.–Hamet (55,723) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Rocky crevices | TH | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Rosids | ||||||||||
| Fabales Bromhead | ||||||||||
| Fabaceae Lindl. | ||||||||||
| Indigofera heterantha Wall. ex Brandis (57,625) | S | P | Apr–Jun | Forest margins waste lands | PH | mcPH | MS | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Lotus corniculatus L. (RRLH57635) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Alpine meadows | CH | MS | LC | Asia | N | |
| Medicago lupulina L. (56,295) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Woodland marginsriverbanks | TH | NP | LC | Europe | A | |
| Oxytropis lapponica (Wahlenb.) J.Gay (56,406) | H | P | Jun–Aug | Alpine meadows | GE | MI | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Phyllodium elegans (Lour.) Desv. (57,633) | S | P | Jul–Sep | Field margins, waste lands | PH | nnPH | MI | NE | Eurasia and North America | A |
| Robinia pseudoacacia L. (57,638) | T | P | Apr–Jun | Waste lands, road sides | PH | mgPH | MS | LC | Europe | A |
| Thermopsis barbata Benth. (54,531) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Alpine high areas | CH | MS | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Trifolium pratense L. (57,641) | H | P | Apr–May | Grasslands meadows | HC | NP | LC | Himalayas | N | |
| Rosales Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Rosaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb. (57,622) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Inside forests | TH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Cotoneaster micrphyllus Wall. ex Lindl. (54,527) | S | P | May–Jun | Alpine rich regions | PH | mcPH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Crataegus songarica K. Koch (54,737) | T | P | Apr–Jun | Field margins | PH | mgPH | NP | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Filipendula vestita (Wall. ex G.Don) Maxim. (55,738) | H | P | May–Aug | Alpine meadows and scrubs | CH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Fragaria nubicola (Lindl. ex Hook.f.) Lacaita (55,768) | H | P | May–Aug | Meadows, forest valleys | TH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Geumelatum Wall. ex G.Don (55,707) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Inside forests | CH | NP | NE | Indo–Malayan region | N | |
| Geum urbanum L. (54,725) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Forest disturbed areas | CH | NP | LC | Himalayas | N | |
| Potentilla argyrophylla Wall. ex Lehm. (55,786) | H | P | May–Jun | Forest thickets and meadows | CH | LP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Potentilla atrosanguinea G.Lodd. (54,538) | H | P | May–Jun | Forest thickets and meadows | CH | NP | NE | Europe and America | ||
| Potentilla indica (Andrews) Th.Wolf (54,340) | H | P | Jun–Aug | Forest scrubs and margins | CH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Potentilla nepalensis Hook. (54,759) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Forest margins and thickets | CH | LP | NE | Asia and North America | A | |
| Potentilla reptans L. (54,355) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Forest margins and thickets | CH | NP | NE | Egypt and North Africa | A | |
| Prinsepia utilis Royle (54,702) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Waste lands, forest slopes | PH | nnPH | MI | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Rosa moschata Herrm. (54,304) | S | P | May–Jun | Forest margins | PH | nnPH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Rosa webbiana Wall. ex Royle (54,742) | S | P | May–Jun | Forrest slopes and margins | L | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Rubus ellipticus Sm. (54,734) | S | P | Apr–May | River sides, sparse forests | PH | nnPH | MS | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Rubus idaeus L. (57,642) | S | P | Apr–Jun | River sides and forest margins | PH | nnPH | NP | LC | Asia | N |
| Rubus niveus Thunb. |
S | P | May–Jul | River sides and forest | PH | nnPH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Sibbaldia cuneata Edgew. (55,735) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Alpine scrubs and meadows | CH | NP | NE | Eurasia and Africa | A | |
| Sorbaria tomentosa (Lindl.) Rehder (54,783) | S | P | Jul–Aug | River sides, forest margins | PH | mcPH | MI | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Spiraea canescens D.Don (57,630) | S | P | Jul–Aug | Forest margins, waste lands | PH | mcPH | NP | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Elaeagnaceae Juss | ||||||||||
| Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb. (54,747) | S | P | Apr–Jun | Forest thickets and margins | L | NP | LC | Himalayas | N | |
| Ulmaceae Mirb. | ||||||||||
| Ulmus wallichiana Planch. (57,606) | T | P | Mar–Apr | Temperate forests, village sides | PH | mgPH | MS | UV | Indian subcontinent | N |
| Cannabaceae Mart. | ||||||||||
| Cannabis sativa L. (56,223) | H | P | Aug–Sep | Waste lands, field margins | CH | NP | NE | Asia | N | |
| Celtis australis L. (54,719) | T | P | Mar–Apr | Roadsides, field margins | PH | mgPH | NP | LC | Europe | A |
| Trema orientale (L.) Blume (56,236) | T | P | Jul–Sep | Dry scrubs and open slopes | PH | mgPH | NP | LC | Asia | N |
| Moraceae Gaudich. | ||||||||||
| Ficus hispida L.f. (54,723) | T | P | Jun–Jul | Forest margins | PH | msPH | MS | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Ficus palmata Forssk. (56,205) | T | P | Aug–Nov | Forest slopes | PH | msPH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Morus alba L. (56,377) | T | P | Apr–May | Waste lands and village sides | PH | msPH | MS | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Urticaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis (54,728) | H | A | Oct–Nov | Disturbed areas, | CH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Pilea umbrosa Wedd. ex Blume (54,326) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Shady, moist places | CH | NP | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Urtica dioica L. (54,501) | H | P | Jun–Sep | Waste lands | HC | MS | NE | Indian Subcontinent | N | |
| Fagales Engl. | ||||||||||
| Fagaceae Dumort. | ||||||||||
| Quercus floribunda Lindl. ex A.Camus (56,305) | T | P | Aug–Oct | Wastelands, forest margins | PH | mgPH | MI | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Quercus ilex L. (54,376) | T | P | Apr–May | Field margins, Waste lands | PH | mgPH | MI | LC | Europe | A |
| Quercus semecarpifolia Sm. (56,235) | T | P | Aug–Oct | Sparse forests and field margins | PH | mgPH | MI | LC | Indian subcontinent | N |
| Juglandaceae DC. ex Prleb. | ||||||||||
| Juglans regia L. (54,336) | T | P | Apr–Sep | Field margins | PH | msPH | MI | LC | Western Himalayas | N |
| Betulaceae Gray | ||||||||||
| Alnus nepalensis D.Don (56,292) | T | P | Jul–Sep | Sparse forests and river banks | PH | mcPH | MI | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Alnus nitida (Spach) Endl. (56,383) | T | P | Sep–Oct | PH | mcPH | MI | LC | Himalayas | N | |
| Betula utilis D.Don (56,289) | T | P | May–Jun | PH | msPH | MI | LC | Himalayas | N | |
| Corylus colurna L. (56,290) | T | P | Mar–Apr | PH | msPH | MS | LC | Asia | N | |
| Cucurbitales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Cucurbitaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Solena heterophylla Lour. (54,790) | S | P | Apr–Jun | Mixed forest thickets | L | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Datiscaceae Dumort. | ||||||||||
| Datisca cannabina L. (56,374) | S | P | May–Aug | Forest margins and river sides | PH | nnPH | MS | NE | Europe and Himalayas | NMA |
| Celastrales Link | ||||||||||
| Celasteraceae R.Br. | ||||||||||
| Parnassia nubicola Wall. ex Royle (55,709) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Aline meadows and scrubs | CH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Oxalidales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Oxalidaceae R.Br. | ||||||||||
| Oxalis acetosella L. (54,328) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Forest shady places | TH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Malpighiales Juss. ex Bercht. & J. Presl | ||||||||||
| Hypericaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Hypericum elodeoides Choisy (54,740) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Damp areas in forests | PH | nnPH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Hypericum hookerianum Wight & Arn. (54,723) | S | P | Apr–Jun | Forest margins | PH | nnPH | NP | NE | North America | A |
| Hypericum perforatum L. (57,662) | S | P | Jul–Sep | Forest scrubs, open areas | PH | nnPH | NP | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Violaceae Batsch | ||||||||||
| Viola canescens Wall. (54,376) | H | P | Mar–Apr | Shady, moist places in forests | TH | NP | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Salicaceae Mirb. | ||||||||||
| Populus ciliata Wall. ex Royle (56,248) | T | P | May–Jun | Road sides and waste lands | PH | mgPH | MS | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Salix daltoniana Andersson (54,711) | T | P | May–Jun | Forest thickets and slopes | PH | msPH | NP | NE | Europe | A |
| Euphorbiaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Euphorbia obovata Decne. (57,620) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Slopy grasslands | TH | NP | EN | Himalayas | N | |
| Euphorbia prolifera Buch.–Ham. ex D.Don. (57,620) | H | P | Jun–Aug | Grasslands and forest margins | TH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Euphorbia wallichii Hook.f. (56,394) | H | P | Jun–Aug | Grasslands and forest margins | TH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Gerianales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Geraniaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Geranium mascatense Boiss. (54,748) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Forest thickets and scrubs | TH | NP | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Geranium wallichianum D.Don ex Sweet (54,334) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Forest thickets and scrubs | TH | NP | LC | IndianSubcontinent | N | |
| Melianthaceae Horan. | ||||||||||
| Trillium govanianum Wall. ex D.Don (55,710) | H | P | May–Jun | Forest thickets and scrubs | GE | MS | EN | Himalayas | N | |
| Myrtales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Onagraceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Oenothera biennis L. (55,789) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Open and disturbed areas | TH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Oenothera rosea L’Hér. ex Aiton (57,663) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Field margins, open areas | TH | NP | NE | Europe | A | |
| Sapindales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Sapindaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Acer caesium Wall. ex Brandis (54,717) | T | P | Apr–Jun | Mixed coniferous forests | PH | mgPH | MG | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Aesculus indica (Wall.ex Cambess) Hook. (57,672) | T | P | Apr–Jun | Mixed coniferous forests | PH | mgPH | MG | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Rutaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Skimmia laureola (DC.) Decne. (54,526) | S | P | Apr–May | Mixed coniferous forests | PH | mcPH | MG | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Malvales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Malvaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Hibiscus syriacus L. (57,673) | S | P | Jul–Sep | Hill slides along stream sides | PH | mcPH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Malva cachemiriana (Cambess.) Alef. (56,241) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Field margins and Waste lands | TH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Malva neglecta Wallr. (57,650) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Disturbed areas | TH | LP | LC | Asia | N | |
| Brassicales Bromhead | ||||||||||
| Brassicaceae Burnett | ||||||||||
| Arabis alpina L. |
H | A | May–Jul | Road sides, slopes | CH | NP | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Arabis amplexicaulis Edgew. (54,369) | H | A | Jun–Jul | Forest and field margins | TH | NP | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Barbarea intermedia Boreau (56,221) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Open areas and forest margins | TH | MI | NE | Europe | A | |
| Capsella–bursa pastoris (L.) MediK. (56,354) | H | P | Mar–Apr | Field margins and open lands | TH | MI | LC | Eurasia and Africa | A | |
| Cardamine impatiens L. (56,226) | H | A | May–Jul | Field margins and Wastelands | HC | MI | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Crucihimalaya stricta (Cambess.) Al Shebaz, O′Kane & R.A.Price |
H | A | Apr–Jun | Forest margins, grassy slopes | TH | NP | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Draba nuda (Bél.) Al–Shehbaz & M.Koch (54,324) | H | A | Apr–Jun | Stream sides, moist places | TH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Lepidium virginicum L. (57,610) | H | A | Jul–Sep | Forest margins and filed edges | TH | NP | NE | NorthAmerica | A | |
| Nasturtium officinale W.T.Aiton (55,798) | H | P | Apr–Sep | Moist, damp areas along streams | TH | NP | LC | Asia and Africa | N | |
| Rorippa islandica (Oeder) Borbás (54,356) | H | A | Apr–Jun | Shady crevices, river sides | TH | NP | LC | Himalayas | N | |
| Super Asterids | ||||||||||
| Caryophyllales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Polygonaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Bistorta affinis (D.Don) Greene (55,718) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Alpine scrubs and scrubs | CH | LP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Bistorta amplexicaulis (D.Don) Greene (57,643) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Mountain scrubs, field margins | CH | LP | NE | Africa and SouthAmerica | A | |
| Bistorta vivipara (L.) Delarbre (54,512) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Mountain scrubs | CH | LP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Fagopyrum cymosum (Trevir.) Meisn. (55,762) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Field margins and open areas | CH | LP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Fagopyrum esculentum Moench (67,644) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Field margins, Waste lands | CH | MS | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Koenigia rumicifolia (Royle ex Bab.) T.M.Schust. & Reveal (55,734) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Alpine thickets and scrubs | TH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Koenigia alpina (All.) T.M. Schust & Reveal (54,766) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Mountain slopes, field margins | TH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill (56,384) | H | P | May–Aug | Alpine scrubs and thickets | CH | MI | NE | Europe and America | A | |
| Persicaria glabra (Willd.) (56,358) | H | P | Sep–Nov | Moist shady places in forests | CH | MI | LC | Eurasia | A | |
| Persicaria lapathifolia (L.) Delarbre (56,281) | H | A | Aug–Nov | Moist shady places along roadsides | CH | MI | LC | Eurasia | A | |
| Rheum webbianum Royle (55,777) | H | P | Aug–Sep | Alpine scrubs, meadows | GE | MG | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Rumex dentatus L. (56,357) | H | P | Jun–Jul | Mountain slopes and moist valleys | GE | MS | LC | Asia | N | |
| Rumex hastatus D.Don (54,703) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Dry mountain slopes | CH | MI | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Rumex nepalensis Spreng. (56,273) | H | P | Jun–Jul | Field margins and waste lands | HC | MS | NE | Asia and Africa | N | |
| Caryophyllaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Acanthophyllum cerastioides (D.Don) Madhani & Zarre (54,512) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Rocky slopes in alpine meadows | CH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Cerastiumdavuricum Fisch. ex Spreng. (54,314) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Stream sides, damp areas | TH | NP | NE | Europe and NorthAmerica | A | |
| Cerastiumglomeratum Thuill. (54,343) | H | P | May–Jun | Moist damp areas along streams | TH | NP | NE | Europe | A | |
| Silene indica Roxb. ex Otth (55,878) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Mountain scrubs and forest margins | TH | NP | NE | Europe and NorthAmerica | A | |
| Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke (57,616) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Mountain scrubs | TH | NP | LC | Europe | A | |
| Amaranthaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Achyranthyes aspera L. (54,755) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Forest slopes, waste lands | CH | NP | NE | South America | A | |
| Amaranthus caudatus L. (576,04) | H | A | Jul–Sep | Field margins | TH | MI | NE | Eurasia | ||
| Amaranthus viridis L. (563,95) | H | A | Jun–Aug | Field margins | TH | MI | NE | America | A | |
| Blitum virgatum L. |
H | A | Jul–Sep | Forest margins | TH | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Chenopodium album L. (55,770) | H | A | Jul–Sep | Field margins, waste lands | TH | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants (56,360) | H | A | Jul–Sep | Field margins and Waste lands | TH | MI | NE | America | A | |
| Phytolaccaceae R.Br. | ||||||||||
| Phytolacca acinosa Roxb (57,619) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Forest understories | GE | MG | NE | America | A | |
| Asterids | ||||||||||
| Ericales Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Balsaminaceae A.Rich. | ||||||||||
| Impatiens balfourii Hook.f. (54,762) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Stream sides, field margins | CH | LP | NE | Australia | A | |
| Impatiens brachycentra Kar. & Kir. (55,785) | H | A | Aug–Sep | Forest margins, along streams | CH | MS | NE | Eurasia and Africa | A | |
| Impatiens edgeworthii Hook.f. (55,782) | H | A | Jul–Sep | Inside forests, moist areas | CH | MS | NE | Eurasia and Africa | A | |
| Polemoniaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Polemonium caeruleum L. (55,761) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Moist areas in forests | CH | MS | NE | Asia | N | |
| Primulaceae Batsch ex Borkh. | ||||||||||
| Androsace rotundifolia Hardw. (54,789) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Grassy slopes in the forests | HC | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Androsace sarmentosa Wall. (56,215) | H | P | Jun–Jul | Rocky surfaces in high alpine regions | HC | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Primula denticulata Sm. (57,689) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Alpine thickets and moist scrubs | GE | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Primula matthioli (L.) V.A. Richt. (56,219) | H | P | Jun–Jul | Alpine thickets and moist scrubs | GE | MS | NE | Europe | A | |
| Primula rosea Royle (56,225) | H | P | Jun–Jul | Alpine thickets and moist scrubs | GE | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Ericaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Rhododendron anthopogon D.Don (55,741) | S | P | Apr–Jun | High mountain scrubs | PH | mcPH | NP | NE | Eurasia | A |
| Rhododendron arboretum (54,394) | T | P | Apr–Jun | Mixed temperate forests | PH | msPH | MS | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Rhododendron campanulatum D.Don (55,725) | S | P | May–Jun | High alpine scrubs | PH | mcPH | NP | NE | Eurasia | A |
| Gentianales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Rubiaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Rubia cordifolia L. (57,636) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Sparse forest | HC | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Gentianaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Gentiana carinata (D.Don ex G.Don) Royle ex D.Don (56,208) | H | A | Jul–Aug | Alpine meadows and thickets | HC | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Gentiana argentea (Royle ex D.Don) Royle ex D.Don |
H | A | Mar–Apr | Waste lands, grassy slopes | HC | NP | NE | Europe and North America | A | |
| Jaeschkea oligosperma Knobl. (55,701) | H | A | Jul–Sep | Grassy slopes, grasslands | TH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Swertia chirayita (Roxb.) H.Karst. (55,796) | H | P | Aug–Sep | Grassy slopes, grasslands | TH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Apocynaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Vincetoxicum hirundinaria Medik. |
H | P | May–Jun | Thickets, forest margins | CH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Boraginales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Boraginaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Arnebia benthamii (Wall. ex G.Don) I.M.Jhonst. |
H | P | Jun–Jul | Mountain slopes, rock cervices | CH | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Cynoglossum lanceolatum Forssk. (55,779) | H | P | Jun–Aug | Forest margins and thickets | TH | NP | NE | South Africa | A | |
| Cynoglossum wallichii G.Don (54,792) | H | P | May–Aug | Hill slides, meadows | TH | NP | NE | NorthAmerica | A | |
| Hackelia macrophylla (Brand) I.M.Jhonst. (563,362) | H | P | Jun–Jul | Alpine thickets and scrubs | TH | Mi | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Hackelia uncinata (Royle ex Benth.) C.E.C Fisch. (56,238) | H | P | Jun–Jul | Alpine thickets and scrubs | TH | MI | NE | Asia | N | |
| Lindelofia longiflora (DC.) Baill. (57,615) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Grasslands and slopes | CH | MI | NE | Asia | N | |
| Myosotis scorpioides L. (54,760) | H | P | May–Jun | Forest margins slopes | HC | MS | NE | Indian subcontinet | N | |
| Trichodesma indicum (L.) Sm. (54,319) | H | P | Mar–Apr | Shady and moist places | TH | NP | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Solanales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Convolvulaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth (57,612) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Fields, waste lands | TH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Solanaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Datura stramonium L. (57,639) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Wastelands, road side | HC | MG | NE | Japan and South Korea | A | |
| Lamiales Bromhead | ||||||||||
| Oleaceae Hoffmanns. | ||||||||||
| Chrysojasminum humile (L.) Banfi (56,247) | S | P | Jul–Sep | Riversides | PH | mcPH | MI | NE | Indian subcontinent | N |
| Fraxinus excelsior L. (54,725) | T | P | Apr–Jun | Field margins, roadsides | PH | mgPH | NP | NT | Himalayas | N |
| Jasminum grandiflorum L. (54,767) | S | P | Jul–Sep | Forest margins, slopy areas | L | MI | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Syringa emodi Wall. ex Royle (56,284) | S | P | Sep–Oct | Alpine scrubs and thickets | PH | nnPH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Plantaginaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Digitalis lanata Ehrh. (56,288) | H | A | Jun–Aug | Open areas and scrubs | TH | NP | LC | Europe and America | A | |
| Digitalis purpurea L. (57,607) | H | A | May–Jun | Forest margins | TH | NP | LC | Himalayas | N | |
| Lagotis cashmeriana (Royle ex Benth.) Rupr. (55,753) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Alpine thickets and scrubs | HC | NP | NE | Asia | N | |
| Lagotis kunawurensis (Royle ex Benth.) Rupr. (56,222) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Alpine scrubs and meadows | HC | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. (55,758) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Alpine scrubs and thickets | CH | NP | EN | Himalayas | N | |
| Plantago himalaica Pilg. (56,284) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Mountain slopes and margins | HC | MI | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Plantago lanceolata L. (56,261) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Forest thickets and edges | HC | MS | LC | Eurasia | A | |
| Plantago major L. (54,794) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Forest margins, slopes | HC | MS | LC | Himalayas | N | |
| Wulfeniopsis amherstiana (Benth.) (54,741) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Rock crevices and shady areas | CH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Scrophulariaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Verbascum thapsus L. (57,608) | H | P | Jun–Jul | Mountain slopes | CH | NP | LC | NorthAmerica | A | |
| Acanthaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Strobilanthes attenuata (Wall. ex Nees) Jacq. ex Nees (5578) | H | P | Jun–Oct | Forest thickets | HC | LP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Lamiaceae Martinov | ||||||||||
| Ajuga integrifolia Buch.–Ham. ex D.Don (54,331) | H | P | May–Jun | Grassy slopes | TH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Elsholtzia ciliata (Thunb.) Hyl. (54,779) | H | P | Jul–Oct | Waste lands | HC | MI | NE | India and Australia | N | |
| Elsholtzia fruticosa (D.Don) Rehder (57,681) | H | S | Aug–Oct | Wastelands and forest margins | PH | nnPH | MI | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Isodon coesta (Buch.–Ham. ex D.Don) Kudo (54,553) | S | P | Sep–Oct | Woodland thickets | PH | nnPH | MI | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Isodon japonicus (Burm.f.) H.Hara (54,552) | S | P | Sep–Oct | Woodland thickets | PH | nnPH | MI | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Isodon rugosus (Wall. ex Benth.) Codd (57,629) | S | P | Jul–Oct | Wastelands and forest scrubs | PH | nnPH | MI | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Lamium album L. (54,551) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Forest margins Shady places | TH | MS | LC | Asia | N | |
| Lamium amplexicaule L. (54,303) | H | A | Mar–Apr | Forest margins | TH | MS | NE | Asia | N | |
| Leucas ciliata Benth. (54,780) | H | A | Jul–Oct | Roadsides, stream sides | TH | NP | NE | Indiansubcontinent | N | |
| Mentha arvensis L. (56,354) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Field margins and wastelands | GE | NP | LC | Eurasia | A | |
| Mentha longifolia (L.) L. (56,363) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Field margins and wastelands | GE | NP | LC | Eurasia | A | |
| Nepeta clarkei Hook.f. (54,731) | H | P | May–Aug | Wastelands, field margins | GE | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Nepeta laevigata (D.Don) Hand.–Mazz. (55,763) | H | P | May–Aug | Road sides, field margins | GE | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Nepeta lamiopsis Benth. ex Hook.f. (54,766) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Forest margins and thickets | HC | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Origanum vulgare L. (55,745) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Forest thickets | CH | NP | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Pimpinella diversifolia DC (56,394) | H | P | Aug–Sep | Mountain scrubs and field margins | CH | MS | NE | |||
| Prunella vulgaris L. (57,634) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Waste lands | CH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Salvia hians Royle ex Benth. (55,749) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Alpine thickets near stream sides | CH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Salvia nubicola Wall. ex Sweet (57,668) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Grassy slopes | TH | NP | NE | Asia | N | |
| Thymus linearis Benth. (57,611) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Rocky slopes | HC | MI | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Thymus serpyllum L. (57,671) | H | P | May–Jun | Rocky slopes | HC | MI | LC | Himalayas | N | |
| Mazaceae Reveal | ||||||||||
| Mazus pumilus (Burm.f.) Steenis (54,777) | H | A | Jul–Sep | Grasslands and thickets | CH | NP | NE | Africa and Asia | A | |
| Mazus surculosus D.Don (RRLH57685) | H | P | Jun–Sep | Forest edges and thickets | CH | NP | NE | South America | A | |
| Orobanchaceae Vent. | ||||||||||
| Pedicularis multiflora Pennell (54,507) | H | A | Jul–Sep | Alpine meadows, slopy areas | GE | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Pedicularis pectinata Wall. ex Benth. (54,540) | H | A | Jul–Sep | Alpine meadows, slopy areas | GE | MS | NE | Eurasia and America | A | |
| Pedicularis pyramidata Royle ex Benth. (54,796) | H | A | Jul–Sep | Alpine meadows, slopy areas | GE | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Asterales Link | ||||||||||
| Campanulaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Campanula latifolia L. (57,670) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Field margins, grassy areas | CH | LP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Campanula pallida Wall. (54,776) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Forest margins and scrubs | CH | MS | NE | SouthAmerica | A | |
| Codonopsis ovate Benth. (55,728) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Alpine thickets and scrubs | CH | MI | NE | NorthAmerica | A | |
| Cyananthus lobatus Wall. ex Benth. (55,736) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Alpine meadows and thickets | CH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Asteraceae Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Achillea millefolium L. (55,759) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Grassy slopes and field margins | HC | MS | LC | Himalayas | N | |
| Anaphalis margaritacea(L.) Benth. & Hook.f. (54,799) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Shady areas in forests | CH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Anaphalis nepalensis (Spreng.) Hand–Mazz. |
H | P | Jul–Sep | Forest margins, river banks | CH | NP | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Anaphalis nubigena DC. (54,341) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Forest margins, river banks | CH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Anaphalis triplinervis Sims ex C.B.Clarke (55,792) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Forest margins, river banks | CH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Aster albescens (DC.) Wall. ex Hand.–Mazz. (54,546) | H | P | Jun–Aug | Alpine scrubs and thickets | TH | MI | NE | Asia | N | |
| Aster flaccidus Bunge (56,293) | H | A | Jun–Jul | High alpine regions | TH | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Aster falconeri (C.B.Clarke) Hutch. (56,293) | H | A | Jun–Jul | High alpine regions | TH | MI | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Aster himalaicus C.B.Clarke (55,730) | H | P | Jul–Sep | High grasslands | TH | MI | NE | Europe | A | |
| Artemisia maritima L. (54,330) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Rocky areas, wasteland | CH | NP | NE | Europe | A | |
| Artemisia roxburghiana Besser (54,544) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Forest slopes, waste lands | CH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Artemisia vestita Wall. ex Besser (55,799) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Rocky slopes, grasslands | CH | NP | NE | Eurasia Africa | A | |
| Carduus edelbergii Rech. f. (55,704) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Alpine thickets | TH | NP | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Cirsium arvense (L.) Scoop (57,612) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Field margins, waste lands | GE | NP | NE | Europe | A | |
| Cirsium falconeri (Hook. f.) Petr. (54,543) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Forest scrubs, wastelands | GE | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Dolomiaea macrocephala DC. ex Royle (55,706) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Alpine scrubs and thickets | CH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Erigeron annuus (L.) Desf. (54,718) | H | A | Jul–Sep | Grassy slopes and forest margins | TH | MI | NE | SouthAmerica | A | |
| Erigeron bonariensis L. (57,647) | H | A | Jul–Sep | Field margins, grassy slopes | TH | MI | NE | Africa | A | |
| Erigeron multiradiatus (Lindl. ex DC.) Benth. & Hook.f. (55,754) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Forest Thickets and scrubs | TH | MI | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Galinsoga parviflora Cav. (57,648) | H | A | Jul–Sep | Stream sides | TH | NP | NE | Africa | A | |
| Heliopsis helianthoides (L.) Sweet (55,780) | S | P | Jul–Sep | Field margins, road sides | PH | nnPH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Hippolytia longifolia (Rech.f.) C.Shih (55,703) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Forest thickets, grassy slopes | CH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Inula grandiflora Willd. (55,729) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Moist shady places in forests | CH | MS | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Inula royleana DC. |
H | P | Jul–Sep | Steam sides in high areas | CH | MG | NE | Eurasia | A | |
| Jacobaea nudicaulis (Buch.–Ham ex D.Don) B.Nord (57,640) | H | P | Aug–Sep | Grassy slopes and thickets | TH | NP | NE | Asia and North America | N | |
| Jurinea albescens (DC.) N.Garcia, Herrando & Susanna (55,714) | H | P | Jun–Sep | Mountain scrubs and thickets | HC | LP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Lactuca dolichophylla Kitam. (54,503) | H | P | June–Sep | Field margins, road sides | TH | LP | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Ligularia fischeri (Ledeb) Turcz. (54,528) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Stream sides | HC | MG | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Ligularia jacquemontiana (Decne.) M.A.Rau |
H | P | Apr–Jun | Stream sides | HC | MG | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Pseudog naphalium affine (D.Don) Anderb. (54,791) | H | P | May–Jun | Wastelands and forest margins | TH | MI | NE | NorthAmerica | A | |
| Saussurea candolleana (DC.) Sch.Bip. (55,717) | H | P | Aug–Sep | Forest thickets, mountain scrubs | CH | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Saussurea roylei (DC.) Sch.Bip. (55,781) | H | P | Aug–Sep | Forest margins, alpine scrubs | CH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Taraxacum officinale F.Wigg. (54,350) | H | P | Apr–Jun | Grasslands, forests, road sides | TH | NP | LC | NorthAmerica | A | |
| Tussilago farfara L. (54,785) | H | P | Mar–Apr | Forest understories | TH | MG | LC | America | A | |
| Dipsacales Juss. ex Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Adoxaceae E.Mey. | ||||||||||
| Viburnum grandiflorum Wall. ex DC (54,377) | S | P | Apr–Jun | Inside forests | PH | mcPH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Caprifoliaceae Juss. | ||||||||||
| Dipsacus inermis Wall. (55,776) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Filed margins, waste lands | CH | MI | NE | Asia | N | |
| Leycesteria formosa Wall. (54,715) | S | P | Apr–Jun | River sides | PH | nnPH | NP | NE | Europe | A |
| Lonicera obovata Royle ex Hook.f.& Thomson (54,542) | S | P | May–Jul | Alpine scrubs and thickets | PH | nnPH | MI | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Morina longifolia Wall. ex DC. (55,705) | H | P | Jul–Aug | Alpine scrubs ana slopes | CH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Valeriana jatamansi Jones ex Roxb. (54,310) | H | P | Mar–Apr | Forest thickets and margins | GE | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Valeriana pyrolifolia Decne (57,688) | H | P | Mar–Apr | Forest thickets and margins | GE | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Apiales Nakai | ||||||||||
| Apiaceae Lindl. | ||||||||||
| Angelica glauca Edgew (54,331) | H | P | Jun–Aug | Alpine thickets and scrubs | TH | MS | EN | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Bupleurum longicaule Wall. ex DC. (55,719) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Forest thickets grassy slopes | CH | MS | NE | Indian Subcontinent | N | |
| Carum carvi L. (55,778) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Bushy alpine meadows | TH | NP | LC | Eurasia | A | |
| Chaerophyllum reflexum Aitch. (54,797) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Open forests | CH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Chaerophyllum villosum Wall. ex DC. (56,355) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Field margins and forest margins | CH | MS | NE | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Cortia depressa (D.Don) C.Norman (55,731) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Alpine meadows | TH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC. (55,711) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Alpine thickets and rocky slopes | HC | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Hymenidium brunonis (DC.) Lindl. (55,739) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Sparse forests, forest margins | CH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Hymenolaena candollei DC. (55,773) | H | P | Jul–Sep | Forest thickets and rocky scrubs | CH | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Tetrataenium canescens (Lindl.) Manden. (55,756) | H | P | Aug–Sep | Forest margins and scrubs | CH | MS | NE | Africa and Europe | A | |
| Araliaceae Juss | ||||||||||
| Hedera nepalensis K.Koch (54,365) | S | P | Oct–Apr | Forest thickets | PH | mcPH | NP | NE | Himalayas | N |
| Gymnosperms | ||||||||||
| Pinales Gorozh. | ||||||||||
| Pinaceae Spreng ex E.Rudolphi | ||||||||||
| Abies pindrow (Royle ex D.Don) Royle (54,367) | T | P | Mar–Apr | Alpine regions | PH | mgPH | LP | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex D.Don) G.Don (57,645) | T | P | May–Jun | Coniferous forests | PH | mgPH | LP | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Picea smithiana (Wall) Boiss (54,305) | T | P | May–Jun | Coniferous forests | PH | mgPH | LP | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Pinus wallichiana A.B.Jacks. (57,675) | T | P | Mar–Apr | Coniferous forests | PH | mgPH | LP | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Cupressaceae | ||||||||||
| Juniperus communis L. (56,251). | T | P | Sep–Oct | Alpine regions | PH | msPH | LP | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Juniperus polycarpos K.Koch (55,737) | S | P | Sep–Oct | Alpine regions | PH | mcPH | LP | LC | Himalayas | N |
| Taxaceae | ||||||||||
| Taxus wallichiana Zucc. (56,225) | T | P | Aug–Dec | Coniferous forests | PH | mgPH | LP | EN | Himalayas | N |
| LYCOPHYTES AND FERNS | ||||||||||
| Polypodiales Link | ||||||||||
| Aspleniaceae Newman | ||||||||||
| Asplenium dalhousieae Hook. (54,334) | H | P | Oct–Nov | Moist shady places along rocks | HC | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Asplenium trichomanes L. (54,317) | H | P | Oct–Nov | Moist rocky surfaces | HC | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Pteridaceae E.D.M Kirchn | ||||||||||
| Adiantum venustum D.Don (54,367) | H | A | Jan–Apr | Stream sides | HC | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Onychium japonicum (Thumb.) Kunze (54,371) | H | P | Oct–Dec | Moist and damp areas | CH | MS | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Pteris biaurita L. |
H | P | Mar–Apr | Forest margins, rocky slopes | HC | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Pteris cretica L. |
H | P | Mar–Apr | Forest margins | HC | NP | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Polypodiaceae J.Presl & C.Presl | ||||||||||
| Polystichum luctuosum (Kuntze) T.Moore (54,335) | H | P | Mar–Apr | Moist shady places | HC | MI | NE | Himalayas | N | |
| Equisetales DC. ex Bercht. & J.Presl | ||||||||||
| Eqisetaceae Michx. ex DC. | ||||||||||
| Equisetum arvense L. (54,322) | H | A | Jan–Apr | Field margins | GE | MI | LC | Indian subcontinent | N | |
| Selaginellales Prantl | ||||||||||
| Selaginellaceae Willk | ||||||||||
| Selaginella eurynota A.Braun (55,774) | H | A | Mar–Apr | Moist shady places along streams | Ep | NP | NE | Himalayas | N |
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; Singh, Bikarma 2
; Musarella, Carmelo Maria 3
1 Plant Sciences and Agrotechnology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Jammu 180001, Jammu and Kashmir, India; Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, Uttar Pradesh, India
2 Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad 201002, Uttar Pradesh, India; Botanical Garden Division, CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, Pratap Marg, Lucknow 226001, Uttar Pradesh, India
3 Department of Agraria, Mediterranean University of Reggio Calabria, Feo di Vito snc, 89122 Reggio Calabria, Italy