Why Access to Electricity is a Big Deal for Nigeria's Development and its Linkages to Poverty, Security and Disease

Abstract

This article examines why access to electricity represents a big deal in Nigeria's development discourse and makes linkages between access to power and three human conditions affected or driven by power: poverty, security and diseases. The method of discourse was employed to create ideas out of the challenging topic/title. It is demonstrated that with the rather low access of Nigeria's poor majority to power, verbalizations regarding socio-economic development might remain vain and pretentious until serious steps are taken in order to realize the objectives and goal of the ongoing Power Sector Reforms thereby increasing access to electricity for applications in myriad productive ventures.

Headnote

Abstract

This article examines why access to electricity represents a big deal in Nigeria's development discourse and makes linkages between access to power and three human conditions affected or driven by power: poverty, security and diseases. The method of discourse was employed to create ideas out of the challenging topic/title. It is demonstrated that with the rather low access of Nigeria's poor majority to power, verbalizations regarding socio-economic development might remain vain and pretentious until serious steps are taken in order to realize the objectives and goal of the ongoing Power Sector Reforms thereby increasing access to electricity for applications in myriad productive ventures.

Keywords: insecurity, poverty, life, property, disease, Nigeria,

JEL Classification: M45

Introduction

The total electricity generated by Nigeria's central grid oscillates around 5,000GW. Sharing that total electricity to the country's population (projected at about 168 million), we realize that Nigerians reportedly have one of the lowest per capita power supply world-wide (Ingwe, Anwunah, Ojeigbu, Martins, 2014). Research-derived information reported in the development literature show that such serious inadequacies or scarcity of needs also characterize other sectors of Nigeria's society. Plundering dictators who claimed in the 1980s that they were seizing the reigns of federal government through coups because hospitals had become mere "consulting rooms", left the health-care system after afflicting same with neo-liberalism-neo-liberalisation in form of the structural adjustment programme/policy in conditions worse than they found same (Makanjuola, 2002; Ingwe, Ikeji, Ojong, 2010). Security of lives and property has degenerated from normalcy to insecurity marked by the new terrorism inflicted by Boko Haram, insurgenies by the Odua Peoples Congress, MASSOP, among other criminal vices (armed robbery, advanced free fraud, among others). Others are the rampart reports of missing persons, rapes, among other forms of insecurity (Ukwayi, Ingwe, Ojong, 2011?). Internationally comparable poverty i.e. people living beneath poverty line (US$2/day) was over 90% of Nigeria's total population in the mid-2000s (WRI, UNDP, UNEP, 2005). Income distribution among Nigerians since the past post-independence decades has exhibited enormous inequality with about one percent of the population stealing about 90% of all earnings from the earnings from export of oil and gas, among other revenues accruing from various sources (Omojola, 2007, Ribadu, 2009). What role does access to power play in the foregoing configuration highlighting varying intensities of insecurities of income, protection of lives and property and health? Why is access to electricity treated as very significant aspect of overall development?

Methodology

I applied the hypothetico-deductive methodology accepted by the scientific community. This accommodates discourse, the specific method adopted to implement the study.

Objectives and organization

The general objective of this paper is to explain why it is becoming frequently proposed by development advocates that increasing access to power (i.e. electricity) supply is a big deal for the development of Nigeria (and by extension all countries of the world). The specific objectives I shall strive towards achieving are: To clarify the linkages between adequate access to power and the quest for reducing insecurities pertaining to three distinct threats to human conditions including poverty (economic insecurity), insecurity of human lives and property, and diseases (insecurity pertaining to attainment of good health (describing the general absence of disease afflicting the body and mind) of individuals constituting society. In striving towards achieving the foregoing objectives, I adopt the perspectives of law and scientific methodology (while assuming that law is one of the social sciences), which is hinged on deductive logic and the formulation and testing of hypothesis, irrespective of how deep or rudimentary this is done within the constraints (space and time) of this research project. In conformity with the latter framework, I shall adopt the specific method of discourse due to its amenability to the hypothetico-deductive scientific methodology. Then, I briefly present the socio-physical, economic contexts (profiles) of Nigeria as a means of elucidating on the linkages between Nigerians' access to electricity and the specific insecurities listed. Afterwards, I rapidly analyse the data, produce information (my findings) that very poor access of Nigeria's majority (over 60% of total population) to power enormously hampers the attainment of security against poverty, protection of lives and property and diseases. I justify the assertion (or proposition) that access to power is a big deal (i.e. represents a big concern for (sub-) national development. Referring to the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, I argue that the existing triple insecurities (poor performance on increasing access to power) represents violations of Nigeria's law and its social, economic and political objectives.

Background for understanding social welfare, basic and other needs

When human needs of the basic and higher order types (e.g. electric power, healthcare, protection of life and property, like many others) are contrived by the plundering ruling class to get as scarce, human life quality in most of Nigeria tends to to degenerate towards one that is close to what the political philosopher and social critic, Thomas 46

Hobbes likened to the "(S)tate of Nature". The latter was characterized a human condition wherein human life was seriously decimated by many serious human-life deleterious adversities. The length of human life (lie expectancy was short, individual life experience of most persons was nasty, brutish and solitary.

No society i.e. group of persons living socializing group, living based on appreciation of laws guiding human conduct as was later re-constituted and has advanced or gained from continual improvement up to what obtains today. In the state of nature, might was right. That is, the stronger man seized the property of others. There was neither knowledge nor appreciation of property except that the raw, brute force of the stronger, violent man enabled him to appropriate goods that others held. The stronger man raped a woman who came his way and appealed to his wild desires! Marriage was inexistent, a luxury. Mutual respect for life and valuation of life was unknown. The idea of one and/or more persons being respectful of human life of others in expectation of being treated respectfully by the other persons was unknown by one and all. Therefore, it was profitable that from the years 1641 to 1654, Hobbes devoted his erudition towards articulating the literature aiming towards promoting the creation of the state and what ought to constitute its sovereign powers as well as the responsibilities of the state to its citizens particularly the states duties for providing improved living welfare (Hobbes, 1640-1654).

These assertions could easily be buttressed by referring to the transformation of society through applications/use of energy services. Satisfaction of the needs of people who constitute society forms one of the most important duties and responsibilities of governments. It is also one of the most significant justifications of the invention and continual advancement of society. Like most advanced industrialized nations, Nigeria's successive administrations have pretentiously striven towards achieving economic growth and socio-economic development. After gaining political independence from British colonialists in 1960, series of national development plans have been designed, officially launched and managed or implemented. These processes have conventionally followed the traditions of adopting the tested institutions that modern society has designed or developed to administer to the needs of members (i.e. people constituting) society.

The literature on energy and socio-economic development generally:

Linkages elucidating why electricity must be a big deal

in Nigeria's development

Linkages have been constructed between the way varying degrees of access to power determines the performance of people engaged in different economic activities and sectors of the economy. Some of the documentations of such studies in the literature deserve review here. In a review of the state of knowledge about the foregoing association, Stanford University academics explored the way national energy development affects economic development generally and how energy services use affects particular economic activities. Highpoints of the report (findings) would be useful for my present explication as follows. In what ways do increased availability of energy contribute towards disproportionate acceleration (catalysation) of economic development? Electricity is viewed as the ultimate (highest form) energy associated with the most advanced level (industrial and related social innovations) development. This is in the context of energydevelopment discourse wherein energy services are graded or categorized such that we have: scavenged energy (animal dung, agricultural wastes/wood, and sunshine are used for drying) during primary stages of development; intermediate energy services created through incomplete processing of energy raw materials (e.g. commercial bio-fuels: charcoal, beasts of burden), while the most advanced form (tertiary stage) is electricity. It is possible for various mixtures of energy levels to be used concurrently (Barnes and Floor, 1996).

Findings of empirical research focusing on highlighting underdevelopment (or reduced well-being) of people due to poor access to power manifests in:

* Enormous expenditure of household labour time in gathering inferior i.e. raw energy materials on a subsistence basis. This would be contrasting to time savings associated with the use of commercialized efficient energy (e.g. power). The costly time of women and children on inefficient energy acquisition takes enormous tolls on other aspects of socio-economic development. For example, the roles of women and children in socialization, schooling, offering or sharing resources and experience within the household, among other social circuits get drastically reduced due to increasing difficulties in fetching required unprocessed energy.

* The application of inefficient human muscle-power (labour) instead of electricity-driven/powered machines for executing many simple tasks (Office Of Technology Assessment, OTA, 1991, 1992).

Various inputs for providing or acquiring energy

Irrespective of the variety of energy type (i.e. level of development), and immense differences in economic activities, some common features characterize energy acquisition or provision include cost-intensiveness. The latter happens in various measures including: commitment of household labour time towards gathering either raw or partially processed biomass, funds spent for acquiring commercial-type fuels, and the inputs required for acquiring energy. Moreover, energy acquisition is associated with foregoing alternatives (i.e. opportunity costs of other inputs into the process). Some frequently associated capital goods include electrical grids, cook-stoves and related ones. Policy measures for promoting the use of more efficient energy (power) through up-scaling financing, reducing informational impediments and enhancing regulation.

Multiplier effects of machine productivity and human capital development

Multiplier effects of energy services on their non-energy counterparts (i.e. the way the former leads to productivity -output- increases of the latter) has also attracted the interests of scholars researching the relationship between energy and economic development. Two facets of this approach have been highlighted or emphasized. First, electricity facilitates output of industrial manufacturing through machine production. Second, others forms of electricity-driven productivity increases include education, human capital development e.g. training of skilled labour, and the provision of other "public goods" (Schurr, 1984; Schurr, 1982; Schurr, Sonenblum, Wood, 1983). This is where health-care services must be included especially pertaining to programmes of public health such as use of vaccines for immunization against infectious diseases and the associated power-intensity to keep vaccines in sound condition rather than allowing same to change into harmful toxins.

Energy consumption and economic growth in Nigeria

Empirical analysis covering 1975 and 2010 has revealed a positive relationship between consumption of petroleum, electricity and aggregate energy and economic growth in Nigeria. This led the authors to recommend that government should diversify power generation sources instead of concentrating on either gas-fired generators or large hydropower stations as have been the practices in the past up to the present (Onakoya, Onakoya, Jimi-Salami, Odedairo, 2013).

Gaps in accessibility of Nigerians to electricity

In this section, I outline/present some of the most effective strategies of elucidating on electricity constituting "a big deal" in Nigeria's development discourse follow. First, I illustrate the deficit in accessibility of the country's population (projected at nearly 170 million to the "public good" (power). Second, I demonstrate the last resort of Nigeria's population strata that have been (and are) deprived access to power to inferior i.e. unprocessed energy produce or services. Third, as requested by you (examiner), I explicate the consequences of the electricity deficit on three key life quality aspects: poverty, security (of lives and property) and disease.

Deficit in access to electricity

Of Nigeria's total population (projected at nearly 170 million, access to the central grid that supplies power has been estimated at merely 40% (Ingwe, 2004/5). With Nigeria's electricity generating capacity estimated at 5.96GW, this translates to an estimated per capita share of power of 40W (while only 25W was available). This represents one of the lowest per capita shares of power world-wide (CIA, no year/date). Electric power consumption per capita (KWh) 1 in recent years (in brackets) were 120 (1999), 135 (2010) and 149 (2011), respectively (World Bank, 2014). Arising from the poor access of Nigeria's poor majority to electricity, between 91% and 95% of the country's population reportedly resort to over-reliance on biomass or "dirty fuels" as a means of cooking, heating and lighting (Vivan, Ezemokwe, Aluwong, 2012; Babalola, 2010; Nigeria, 2005).

Consequences Of Nigerians' Poor Access To Electricity On Selected Life Quality Conditions: Case Studies Of Poverty, Security Of Lives And Property And Disease

Poverty in Nigeria: The role of poor access to electricity

In Nigeria, poverty of a large proportion of Nigeria's (over 90% of the total population unable to earn and or spend US$2/day i.e. affecting over 100 million persons). Therefore the 91% and 95% of Nigeria's population reportedly resorting to over-reliance on biomass or "dirty fuels" as a means of cooking, heating and lighting (Vivan, Ezemokwe, Aluwong, 2012; Babalola, 2010; Nigeria, 2005). There are many ways that declining and low access of the public and the organizations they create and manage to electricity connects with poverty. These include the contribution of Nigeria's electricity grid managed by the notoriously inefficient state-owned monopoly, NEPA (which was later transformed into PHCN) to the collapse of the formal sector (as well as the informal sector) of the economy during the dictatorship of IB Babangida. This bidirectional damage to entrepreneurship translated into large-scale and rampaging unemployment. This problem worsened to a high level by 2007 that most of Nigeria's top government functionaries declared triumphantly that about 40 million Nigerian youth were both unemployed and unemployable yet did absolutely nothing radical to address the challenges Nigerian Tribune (Abuja / Lagos), 2009/ February 25). As you are aware, unemployment, like its counterpart (under-employment) is closely intertwined with poverty.

Security of human lives and property or otherwise and access to power

Three major categories of insecurity deserve explication here: street-based insecurity and organized violent civil society organizations representing ethnic nationalities operating from depths of caves and criminal banditory camouflaging as the latter. All three adversities connect to inadequate access to power. Among the many forms of insecurity prevailing are missing persons (Ukwayi, Ingwe, Ojong, 2010), abduction/hostage for ransom seeking/ taking, armed robbery, ritual killing, among others usually perpetrated in dark alleys where electricity fails to illuminate. Moreover, in the context of the increasing unemployment and underemployment spurn by the collapse of Nigeria's formal and informal economy, more of Nigeria's bulging youthful population entered got caught up in the unfortunate worlds of crime and social vices and deviant behaviour.

Electricity hunger for production leaves little for public lighting Having collapsed due to power-hunger, Nigeria's formal sector businesses (industrial and others) remain unsatisfied with the recent and current power generation and supply scenarios. Under the circumstances, lighting up public spaces with grid-based electricity remains an uphill task. The implication of the foregoing is the perpetuation and prolongation of darkness obliterating public and not-so-public places that vulnerable people must traverse in their daily quest to eke out a living under traumatizing environments.

Disease as consequences of low access to electricity

Here, I shall address two dimensions of the problem. First, I briefly examine the consequences of poor access to electricity leading to the resort fuelwood and the provocation of diseases. Second, I examine, also briefly, the way inadequate access to electricity hampers health-care services. In addressing both dimensions, I begin by examining them globally before referring to their manifestation in Nigeria.

Diseases prompted or caused by the resort to fuelwood

Globally, control-experiments have led to findings that tuberculosis (one of the commonest diseases related to respiratory tract infection) was prevalent in households that use poorly processed biomass compared to those that were not exposed to "kitchen smoke" (Mishra, Rutherford, Smith, 1999: 119). A related study in the Himalayas found that fuelwood using communities presented a much higher burden of diseases (lung cancer, etc.) and loss of disability adjusted life years and /or death compared to the national average (Pandey, 2012). Empirical studies of the association between use of "dirty fuels" for cooking, heating and lighting in Kanai (Northern Nigeria) revealed that respiratory diseases were associated with the "energy poverty" practice (Vivan, Ezemokwe, Aluwong, 2012). This confirms the threat of "kitchen smoke", the release of noxious gases resulting from partial combustion of biomass (poorly processed and raw biomass) that causes myriad diseases -mostly respiratory in Nigeria, like most developing countries.

Diseases promoted and/or worsened by inadequate access to electricity

The way poor access to electricity poses huge impediments to general vaccines production and to specific vaccines has been reported. Some examples of special vaccines production hampered by low access to power include those for managing and treating rabies (Tierkel, et al., 2013, Tierkel, 1953). An assessment of cold chain equipment including availability of solar refrigeration facilities in 2012 revealed that there was a 23% gap (i.e. only 1199 of total wards) were well equipped (National Primary Healthcare Development Authority, NPHCDA, :19).

Conclusion

As requested by you (the examiner), I have in this article of specified length elucidated on "why access to electricity is a big deal (i.e. matters to) Nigeria's development discourse. I also extended the discourse to cover the related facet of linking access to power (or otherwise) to three forms of insecurities (poverty), protection (or lack of it) of lives and property and disease intensity/burden. By drawing data from secondary sources, I have analysed the data to create information useful for further interrogation of the state of the art of promoting access of the public to electricity, a "public good".

The information produced here indicates that the current level of electricity generated and supplied remains beneath the demand (which has been described as "suppressed" over the decades since the dictatorships of Babangida in the 1980s. There is need to support the ongoing Power Sector Reforms as a means of increasing access of Nigeria's population to power which would in turn change the status quo from an energyhungry economy/society to one where adequate access to power shall reduce the currently high levels adversities (poverty, insecurity of lives and property and diseases).

This study is limited because of its narrow focus on only three of the rather wide spectrum of adversities that bifurcate with Nigeria's energy sector, like any other sector of the economy and society. Further analyses could turn the gaze towards other equally essential aspects of socio-economic development that have been omitted from this investigation as a means of enlightening public understanding of issues in the nexus of socio-economic development that require electricity. For example, very interesting results could be developed by analyzing the way poor access to power hampers human capital development which is a very significant contributor towards socio-economic development at various regional scales: (sub)national regional, local, and international. Rather than concentrating narrowly on disease, I would encourage researchers to beam their investigative gazes on the way poor access to electricity hampers retainance of professional medical and paramedical staff of health institutions.

Footnote

Notes

Electric power consumption per capita (KWh) measures the energy production by power plants, combined heat and power less losses arising from transmission, distribution and transformation as well as own use of heat and power by the plants (World Bank, Retrieved 23 June 2014 from: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.USE.ELEC.KH.PC.

Acknowledgment

Thanks are due to Niyi Ayoola-Daniels, visiting professor of Oil and Gas Law, 2013 session M.Sc. course in Petroleum Economics, Policy and Strategy, EEI, Uniport for inspiring this article which original version was submitted to him June 2014.

References

References

Barnes D., and Floor WM. (1996) Rural energy in Developing Countries: A challenge for economic development. Annual Review of Energy and Environment, 21: 497-530.

CIA. No year/date. World Factbook ?/Energy Information Administration.

Hobbes, T. (1640) Elements of Law, Natural and Politic (circulated only in handwritten copies, first printed edition, without Hobbes's permission in 1650).

Hobbes, T. (1641) Objectiones ad Cartesii Meditationes de Prima Philosophia (Third series of Objections).

Hobbes, T. (1642) De Cive (Latin. first limited edition).

Hobbes, T. (1643) De Motu, Loco et Tempore (first edition 1973 with the title: Thomas White's De Mundo Examined).

Hobbes, T. (1644) Part of the Praefatio to Mersenni Ballistica (in F. Marini Mersenni minimi Cogitata physico-mathematica. In quibus tam naturae quàm artis effectus admirandi certissimis demonstrationibus explicantur).

Hobbes, T. (1644) Opticae, liber septimus, (written in 1640) in Universae geometriae mixtaeque mathematicae synopsis, edited by Marin Mersenne (reprinted by Molesworth in OL V pp. 215-248 with the title Tractatus Opticus).

Hobbes, T. (1646) A Minute or First Draught of the Optiques (Harley MS 3360; Molesworth published only the dedication to Cavendish and the conclusion in EW VII, pp. 467-471).

Hobbes, T. (1646) Of Liberty and Necessity (published without the permission of Hobbes in 1654).

Hobbes, T. (1647) Elementorum Philosophiae Sectio Tertia De Cive (second expanded edition with a new Preface to the Reader).

Hobbes, T. (1650) AnsIr to Sir William Davenant's Preface before Gondibert.

Hobbes, T. (1650) Human Nature: or The fundamental Elements of Policie (first thirteen chapters of The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic, published without Hobbes's authorization).

Hobbes, T. (1650) Pirated Edition of The Elements of Law, Natural and Politic, repackaged in two of the following parts:

Hobbes, T. (1650a) Human Nature, or the Fundamental Elements of Policie (chapters 14- 19 of Part One of the Elements of 1640).

Hobbes, T. (1650b) De Corpore Politico (Part Two of the Elements of 1640).

Hobbes, T. (1651) Philosophical Rudiments concerning Government and Society (English translation of De Cive).

Hobbes, T. (1651) Leviathan, or the Matter, Forme, and PoIr of a CommonIalth, Ecclesiasticall and Civil .

Hobbes, T. (1654) Of Libertie and Necessitie, a Treatise.

Ingwe, R., Anwunah, I., Ojeigbu, E., Martins, O. 2014. Energy and energy resources in Nigeria (Unpublished position paper, EEI, University of Port Harcourt.

Ingwe R., Ikeji CC and Ojong FE. 2010. Neoliberal globalization, financial and economic crises and sustainable development in Africa (ICFAI University Journal of Governance and Public Policy, Vol. 5 (Issue 4) (Hyderabad, December, 2010): 3162.

Ingwe, R. (2004) Renewable Energy Research and Development: The Obudu Ranch Plateau case study (A 17-Chapter book-size Technical Report submitted to Canadian Environmental Network International, CEN Int'l), Retrieved 7 July 2005 from: http://www.onesky.ca/energetics/.

Makanjuola, RO. (2002) Health care in Nigeria. The National Scholar (Ibadan), September: 27-29.

Mishra VK, Retherford RD, Smith KR. (1999) Biomass cooking fuels and prevalence of tuberculosis in India. Perspectives (International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 3(3) 1999: 119-129.

National Primary Healthcare Development Authority, NPHCDA. (No year/date). Nigerian National Routine Immunisation Strategic Plan (2013-2014). Abuja: NPHCDA. Retrieved 23 June 2014 from: http://www.nationalplanningcycles.org/sites/default/files/country_docs/Nigeria/ ri_strategic_plan_combined_mahmud_draft_1.pdf.

Nigeria, FR. (2005) Poverty profile of Nigeria. Abuja: National Bureau of Statistics.

Nigeria, FR. (1999) Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Lagos: Federal Government Printers.

Office Of Technology Assessment, OTA. (1992) Fuelling Development: Energy Technologies for Developing Countries. Report OTA-E-516, April. http://www.wws.princeton.edu/ota/õta/. Retrieved 23 June 2014 from: http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstream/10685/1/dp030013.pdf

Tomal M, Jamelkova B. (2002) Energy and Economic Development: An Assessment of the State of Knowledge. Stanford, CA: The University of Stanford (Programme on Energy and Sustainable Development, Working Paper, 9. November. http://cesp.stanford.edu/pesd.

Omojola, B. (2007) The Niger Delta: Poor But Very Rich. African Today (London). October: 25-36

Onakoya AB, Onakoya AO, Jimi-Salami OA, Odedairo BO. (2013) Energy consumption and Nigerian economic growth: An empirical analysis. European Scientific Journal, Vol. 9, No. 4: 1857-7881, February 2013.

Pandey, R. (2012) Disease burden of fuelwood combustion pollutants in rural households of the Himalayes, India. Italian Journal of Public Health, 9 (1): 70-79.

Ribadu, Nuhu. (2009) "Corruption: The Nigeria Example (Address to the US House of Representatives in May 2009), THE WEEK (Lagos), vol. 29, no. 13, June 1, 50 & vol. 29, no. 14, June 8, p. 50.

Rosenberg N. (1983) The effects of energy supply characteristics on technology and economic growth, In: SH Schurr, S Sonenblum, D. Wood (eds.). Energy, productivity and economic growth. Cambridge, MA: Oelgeschlager, Gunn and Hain.

Schurr, SH. (1984) Energy use, technological change and productive efficiency: An economic-historical approach. Annual Review of Energy, 9: 409-25.

SH Schurr, S Sonenblum, D. Wood (eds.). Energy, productivity and economic growth. Cambridge, MA: Oelgeschlager, Gunn and Hain.

Schurr, SH. (1982) Energy efficiency and productive efficiency: Some thoughts based on American experience. Energy Journal, 3: 3-14.

Tierkel, IS, Nwosu C, Okewole, PA. (2013) Challenges and prospects of anti-rabies vaccines production in Nigeria. Journal of Vaccines & Vaccination, 4 (8): 1000212.

Tierkel ES, Kissling RE, Eidson M, Habe K. (1953) A brief survey and progress report of controlled comparative experiment in Canine Rabies Immunisation(Proc 89th Annual Meeting AVMA, Toronto, Canada, 443-445.

Ukwayi JK, Ingwe R, Ojong FE. (2010) The prevalence of missing persons in Africa's premier mega city (Lagos, southwestern Nigeria): Descriptive and comparative analyses, Nigerian Journal of Social & Development Issues, 2010.

Vivan EL, Ezemokwe IU, Aluwong, GS. (2012) Health effects of biomass energy use in rural households in Kanai (Mali) district of Zango-Kataf Local Government Area, Kaduna State, Nigeria. Journal of Environmental Management & Safety, Vol. 3, No. 6 (2012): 28-39. Retrieved 23 June 2014 from: http://cepajournal.com/index.php?option=com_docman&task=cat_view&gid=45&It emid=87.

World Bank Group. 2014. Electric power consumption (KWh per capita). Retrieved 23 June 2014 from: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.USE.ELEC.KH.PC.

WRI, UNDP, UNEP, and World Bank. 2005. World Resources 2005. Managing Ecosystems to Fight Poverty. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute.

"40 million Nigerian youths unemployed - FG - Plans Summit on youth unemployment - 80% Nigerian graduates unemployable - Education Minister", Nigerian Tribune (Abuja / Lagos), February 25, 2009: 20 (correspondent reports by S. E. Fagbemi C. and Idoko).